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MANUAL OF HIGH 
SCHOOL B 




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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap.Q-KiSCopyriglit ]S^o._ 
Shelf_-cC_(D 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



A LABORATORY MANUAL 

OF 

HIGH SCHOOL BOTANY 




FREDERIC E. CIvEMENTS, PH.D., 
Instructor in Botany in the University of Nebraska, 



IRVING S. CUTTER. B.Sc. 
Principal of the Beatrice High School. 



LINCOLN, NEBRASKA. 

rHE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING CO. 

19C0. 



1 



51603 



SEP 25 1900 



Copyright^ 1900, by Frederic E. Oewtemts and Irsdmg S. Cutter. AH r^his resented. 






PREFACE 

The present work is intended solely as a laboratory 
guide in connection with lectures or a text-book. The 
matter has, in consequence, been presented in the 
briefest and most compact form consistent with this 
purpose. The aim is to put the student to work 
quickly and to keep him at work intelligently. Ex- 
planation has been added only when it seemed essen- 
tial to the proper handling of the laboratory work. 
The material and the teacher have been regarded as 
the two important facts in the work. The laboratory 
directions, it is hoped, will bring the student into 
direct contact with the material, and will relieve the 
teacher of a large amount of drudgery, thus giving 
him time for real teaching. 

The Manual is an authoritative expression from the 
Department of Botany of the University of Nebraska 
upon the kind and amount of elementary botany that 
should be taught in the accredited schools and colleges 
of the state. It has been written with the idea of 
making it possible for schools to give at the same time 
the proper preparation in botany to those intending 
to go to college, and a broad and scientific view of 
plants to those who stop at the end of the high school. 
In consequence, it can not be used in part, if the 
best results are desired. The completion of the entire 
work as outlined gives two credit points. In those 



4 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

schools which are not yet prepared to give the subject 
the full amount of time, a credit of one point will be 
given for a prescribed amount of work done in the 
different diyisions. The amount of work required for 
one credit point may be learned by communicating 
with the Department of Botany. 

University of Nebraska, August 1, 1900. 



CONTENTS 

General Directions 7 

Plant Structure or Histology 31 

Structurje and Classification 55 

Ph jtogeography 78 

Synopsis of the Larger Groups of the Vegetable 

Kingdom 80 

Physiology 85 

Appendix 101 

Glossary 102 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

THE LABOEATOKY 

The laboratory should, wherever possible, be used 
solely for this purpose. When the class is not too 
large, the laboratory might be used also as a botanical 
lecture room. The laboratory windows should be high 
and wide, and should face the north or the east. West 
windows are serviceable only in the morning, while 
south windows are never satisfactory. The room 
should be furnished with regular microscope tables, 
having heavy tops and broad, solid supports, placed 
next the windows. Low deal tables may, of course, be 
used in their stead if absolutely necessary. The room 
should contain, also, a microscope case, material case, 
shelves for books, a set of lockers, a sink, and several 
slop jars. A good blackboard as well as a convenient 
place for hanging charts are essentials. 

THE MICROSCOPE 

The microscopes should be selected for compactness 
and serviceability. They should be furnished with 
two objectives and two eye- pieces, one containing a 
micrometer. If the microscopes are fitted with double 
nose-pieces, a great saving of time will result, and 
the objectives will w^ear longer. In buying micro- 
scopes, it is much better to buy several simple, me- 
dium-priced instruments that will do all that is 



8 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

required of them than to buy one or two high-priced 
microscopes which are altogether out of place in an 
elementary laboratory. The following microscopes 
are recommended by the Department of Botany for 
use in the high schools and colleges. Bausch & Lomb 
OA microscope with two oculars, one containing a 
micrometer, Vs, Ye objectives and double nose-piece, 
costing approximately f 23. Leitz, Stand IV, with No. 
2 and 3 ocular. No. 3 and 7 objectives, and double nose- 
piece, 122.50. The latter may be obtained of William 
Kraft, 411 West 59th St., New York. In the case of 
high schools, it is preferable to buy from Bausch & 
Lomb, simply for the reason that it is not necessary to 
wait for importation, as is the case with the Leitz in- 
struments. There is practically no difference be- 
tween the two makes of instruments. 

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT 

Each laboratory table should be supplied with a 
set of drop bottles containing the following reagents : 
alcohol, glycerin, iodin, potassium hydrate, sulphuric 
acid cone, anilin sulphate, safranin, gentian violet, 
methyl green, hydrochloric acid. Probably all of 
these may be obtained from the local druggist, with 
the exception of the last four which may be bought of 
Bausch & Lomb. The salts used in making experi- 
ments with nutrient solutions should be obtained from 
this company also. 

Satisfactory laboratory work is impossible without 
good tools. For this reason it is unwise to use odds 
and ends in the way of razors, scalpels, tweezers, etc. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 9 

No work should be attempted without good dissecting 
sets, each set being assigned to as few students as 
possible. At the end of each working period, the 
teacher should see that the set is returned in perfect 
condition. A good hone and strop should be provided, 
and the students thoroughly instructed in their use 
and care. The botanical dissecting sets, yellow Bel- 
gian hones, and good strops may be obtained of 
Bausch & Lomb. 

Bessey^s "Essentials of Botany," 7th ed., and Pound 
and Clements' "Phytogeography of Nebraska," 2d ed., 
should be constantly at hand as reference books or as 
t€xts. In addition, every botanical laboratory should 
have a copy of each of the following : 

MacDougal's "Experimental Plant Physiology," |1. 

Sachs' "Text-book of Botany," The MacMillan Com- 
pany, 66 Fifth Av., New York, |5. 

Strasburger's "Text-book of Botany," The Mac- 
Millan Company, |4.50. 

Bennett and Murray's "Cryptogamic Botany," 
Longmans, Green and Co., 15 E. 16th St., New York, 
$4.15. 

Britton and Brown's "Illustrated Flora of the 
Northern United States," Charles Scribner's Sons, 
New York, 3 vols., $9. 

Zimmermann's "Botanical Microtechnique," Henry 
Holt & Co., New York, $2.60. 

"Flora of Nebraska," Parts I and II. Botanical 
Seminar, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, f 2. 

Webber's "Catalogue of the Plants of Nebraska" 



10 MANrAL OF EOTAXY 

may be obtained from the Department of Botany for 
twenty-five cents. 

Besvsey's "Synopsis of the Vegetable Kingdom,'' a 
wall chart, may be obtained for fifteen cents. 

CAEE OF LAEQgATOEY EQUIPMENT 

The greatest care should be insisted npon in the 
use of the microscopes. The latter should be kept in 
a tight case as free from dust as possible. The student 
should be taught to clean the outer lenses of both eye 
pieces and objectives with lens paper when the in- 
stnuneat is taken out and put away. The lens paper 
should be clean and must be kept in a dust-free place, 
such as between the sheets in the back part of the 
student's laboratory notebook. If the microscopes are 
new or only slightly used, the student should be re- 
quired to clean the stand thoroughly with chamois 
skin or a linen cloth before returning it to the case. 
If the double nose-piece is used, the student must be 
taught always to find the object under the low power 
objective and then to swing the high power into posi- 
tion carefully. Without the nose-piece, the high 
power should never be twisted down upon the object 
while the eye is applied to the eye-piece. The objective 
should be lowered slowly until only a thin line of light 
remains between the front lens and the top of the cover 
glass, when it should be raised slowly until the object 
is seen in the field. In making tests with acids and 
alkalies, the work must always be done under the eye 
of the teacher and, as a rule, with the low power. 
Under no circumstances should any of the acid or 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 11 

alkali be outside the cover glass. It must be insisted 
on as an absolute rule that neither eye-piece nor ob- 
jective be taken apart by any one except the one in 
charge of the laboratory. 

The glassware essential for microscopical work is 
slides, covers, and watch-glasses. In addition, there 
should be drop bottles for reagents and Petri dishes 
for materials. Water dishes of glass or stoneware 
should be kept on the tables. The laboratory should 
have at least one graduate ruled in cubic centimeters. 
A slide micrometer is necessary for exact micro- 
scopical measurements. Large battery jars should be 
obtained for aquarium purposes. For physiological 
work, there should be a supply of bell-glasses, beak- 
ers, flasks, bottles, test-tubes, cylinders, glass tubing 
and rubber tubing, the amount depending upon the 
size of the class. These supplies can be obtained of 
the Bausch & Lomb Company, Stewart Building, 
Chicago. 

BOTANICAL MATERIAL 

The materials necessary for laboratory work should 
be collected by the teacher as far as possible. Where- 
ever possible, as much material as is needed should be 
collected during the spring and summer and preserved 
in the proper fluid. Ordinary histological material 
may be put directly into 30 per cent alcohol when col- 
lected, and trasferred a few days later to 60 per cent 
alcohol in which it will keep indefinitely. Algae, deli- 
cate tissues, etc., should first be killed in Flemming^s, 
the first for 10 to 30 minutes, the second for 1 to 3 



12 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

hours. Algae are best preserved in a 1 per cent water 
solution of chrom alum, a few drops of formalin being 
added to each 100 cc. It is most satisfactory to keep 
algae constantly growing in aquaria, if the latter can 
be kept from freezing. If the water in the aquaria is 
aerated every day by allowing fresh water to fall into 
it from a height of two or three feet, the algae will 
remain growing for a long time. Wherever a green- 
house is readily accessible, fresh material should be 
used except in the rare cases where preserved material 
cuts more readily or shows some point not evident in 
fresh specimens. The greenhouse, if kept at all moist, 
will furnish an unfailing supply of Protophytes, in 
addition to the histological material. Cup fungi, 
mushrooms, mosses, liverworts, ferns, and horsetails 
may be readily grown in the greenhouse as well. In 
case it is impossible to get material for any reason, a 
complete supply of the materials required in the 
present Manual will be kept by the Department of 
Botany. These will be supplied to schools at the 
actual cost of collection and of preservation. In 
sending an order for material, indicate the plants de- 
sired and the number of students in the class. Ad- 
dress the Department of Botany, University of Ne- 
braska, Lincoln, writing "Supplies" in the lower left 
hand corner. 

PREPARED SLIDES 

Prepared slides should never be used in the regular 
work under any condition. The student should be 
taught to make his own slides, the chief value of 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 13 

laboratory training being in the self-reliance which it 
develops. Demonstration slides may occasionally be 
used in connection with the text or lectures, but only 
in the case of those objects which it is impossible for 
the student to prepare for himself. In consequence, 
teachers are strongly urged not to use prepared slides 
for any of the regular work of the Manual. Slides 
showing karyokinesis, etc., for the purpose of demon- 
stration, will be furnished by the Department to 
schools at cost. 

SUGGESTIONS REGARDING THE COURSE 

In the disposition of the time which is given to 
botany, it is recommended that the class-room work 
be reduced to a minimum. If five hours are given 
each week, only one or two should be used in the class- 
room, and the remainder in laboratory work. A 
single lecture a week, in connection with the texts and 
readings, will enable the student to follow the labora- 
tory work to the best advantage. The need of recita- 
tions may be obviated by frequent quizzes, either in 
the laboratory or class-room. The really important 
part of all scientific teaching is actual contact with 
the things studied, and, in conformity to this, every- 
thing else in the course should be subordinated to the 
laboratory. If the teacher or an assistant is con- 
stantly in charge of the laboratory, the lectures should 
touch upon different parts of the subject after the 
student has worked over them, completing and con- 
necting the facts he has seen for himself in the labora- 
tory. If the student must work alone part of the time, 



14 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

he will usually work to better advantage if he has 
the lecture notes as an aid. When the amount of time 
given to botany is only sufficient for the laboratory 
work, the best plan will be to use the "Essentials of 
Botany'' and the "Phytogeography of Nebraska" as 
text-books, following the references to them given in 
the laboratory manual. 

At the beginning of the work, the student must be 
taught how to set up, use, and take care of the micro- 
scope, and how to make measurements with the mi- 
crometer. He must have impressed upon him the need 
of taking the best care of the instrument, especially 
the eye-pieces and objectives. He must learn to focus 
quickly and to find objects in the field at once. He 
should never be permitted to begin work until he uses 
the microscope readily, or he will always be handi- 
capped by this inability. Fairly accurate measure- 
ments of an object may be made by keeping both 
eyes open when looking through the eye-piece, so that 
the object may be superimposed upon a pencil held in 
the hand in such a way that its length or width may 
be measured. A much more accurate and satisfactory 
way is by means of an eye-piece micrometer, a small 
scale usually fastened in the eye-piece. The value of 
one space of this scale is sometimes given by the maker 
of the instrument. If such is not the case, it must be 
determined by the use of a stage micrometer, a slide 
with one or two millimeters ruled in tens, and one of 
the latter ruled in ten smaller spaces. The value of a 
millimeter being 1,000 micromillimeters, the unit of 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 15 

microscopical measurement, usually designated by the 
Greek letter mu, /*, the larger spaces of the stage 
micrometer will contain 100 micromillimeters or /*, 
and the smaller, 10 /a. 

To find the value of a space of the eye-piece micro- 
meter, determine the number of spaces eye-piece mi- 
crometer in a certain number of spaces stage 
micrometer, reduce the latter to />t, and divide by the 
spaces of the eye-piece micrometer. If 6 spaces of 
the eye-piece micrometer equal 1 space of the stage 
micrometer, then x, the space of the eye- piece microm- 
eter, equals 1 multiplied by 100/^, divided by 6. 

IXlOO _. 

X = 7i =16. DW, 

O 

The value of the eye-piece scale is found in the same 
way for both high and low power objectives. 

The number of diameters of magnification of the 
high or low power may be found by projecting, with 
both eyes open, the eye-piece scale upon a millimeter 
rule placed upon the table alongside the microscope, 
and by determining the ratio between the two. The 
ratio between the eye-piece micrometer and the milli- 
meter rule being determined, to find the magnification 
of high or low power, reduce the spaces of eye-piece 
micrometer and of millimeter rule to /* and divide the 
latter by the former. If 5 spaces of the eye-piece equal 
6 of the rule, then ijj the number of magnifications, 
will equal 72. 

v= cz..-ia n =^'^ diameters. 
"^ 5x16.6 



16 



MAXUAL OF BOTAXY 



In order to draw accuratelv, it is necessarr to know 
the magiiified size of the object in millimeters. The 
magnified size is fonnd by reducing the number of 
spaces of CTe-piece micrometer to /^s mnltiplring the 
result by the magnifying power, and diriding by 1,000 
in order to reduce to millimeters. 



10X16.6X72 
1000 



=11.9 mm. 



If each student is required to make out a table such 
as the following, and to keep it in his laboratory note- 
book, much time will be saved in working out the ralue 
of measurements. 



ACTUAL VALUE 



2-3 

. . . 16.6 ^ 
... 33.2 ' 
... 49.8 " 
... 66.4 ' 
... 83.0 ' 
. . . 99.6 " 

7 U6.2 ' 

8 132.8 ' 

9 149.4 ' 

10 166.0 ' 



SPACES 
1... 

2... 
3... 
4... 
5... 

6... 



MAGNIFIED VALUE 
2-3 ANT) 2-7 



2-7 

2.7 ytx 1.29 m 



ni. 



. 5.4 
, 8.1 
,10.8 
,13.5 
,16.2 
,18.9 
,21.6 
,24.3 
,27.0 



2.58 
, 3.88 
. 5.17 
. 6.47 
. 7.76 
. 9.06 
,10.35 
.11.65 
,12.94 



If the object measures between one and ten spaces, 
its actual and magnified size will be found at once. 
Above ten, the number of si:)aces may be factored at a 
glance and the factor referred to the table. 

The be^t method of work is first to examine the 
object in the gross, then under the low power, and 
finally under the high power. As the results of the 
observation, the notes, are written up, the meas- 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 17 

urements should be made and recorded. In all eases, 
the student should be encouraged to write up his notes 
without the questions and suggestions given after 
each experiment. He should be taught to observe and 
think for himself, though at first suggestion will be 
found absolutely necessary. The drawing should 
never be begun until the student has made all the ob- 
servations required. Having found the dimensions of 
the magnified object by reference to the table, the 
exact size may be measured upon the drawing paper 
and the student is ready to begin his drawing. In 
schools where no adequate instruction in drawing is 
given, the student should be instructed in making 
straight lines and curves with a sweeping stroke, and 
in fine stippling. A poor line or an incorrect one 
should be erased at once : a second line should never 
be drawn until the first one is out of the way. The 
drawing sheet should be loose in order that it may be 
turned readily in any direction. This is necessary 
since a sweeping stroke is more easily acquired if the 
line is always drawn in the same direction. The 
teacher should supervise, in so far as possible, the 
making of the first drawings so that the student may 
not lose any time in having to redraw a completed 
drawing. After a time the student may be trusted 
more and more in making independent drawings, 
always with the understanding that a poor or careless 
drawing must be redrawn. In those schools in which 
botany is taught for the maximum time throughout 
the year, ink drawings may be made with good results, 

2 



18 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

but in most schools the extra time demanded by the 
inking makes it out of the question. The ink used is 
Higgins' Waterproof Black Ink. It may be used un- 
diluted, giving a black line, or it may be diluted with 
water fifty parts, making a gray ink, called outline 
gray, which is especially good for drawing tissues, 
outlines, etc. Outline gray flows more readily than 
the black ink, also. The stippling should generally be 
done with the black. The only good drawing pen is 
Gillott^s Crowquill Pen, 659. 

THE NOTE BOOK 

The laboratory notebook should consist of a history 
cover TfxlO inches, filled with alternate sheets of 
drawing paper and note paper. It may be obtained of 
H. W. Brown Co., 127 South 11th, Lincoln, Nebraska. 

The drawing page should be arranged to the left, 
the note page to the right. As a rule, only two draw- 
ings should be made on each page. Generally, the 
notes on each study will require a page so that the 
drawing page should be followed by two note pages. 
Nothing should be placed upon the page in addition 
to the drawings, except the necessary lettering. In 
the histological work, the notes may be written up 
without regard to any fixed arrangement, but in the 
study of plant forms, a definite scheme saves time and 
aids in making the notes more easily accessible. In 
the following sample note page, the classification of 
the plant is given first, followed by a short description 
of the plant, giving measurements, and then by an- 
swers to the questions suggested. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 19 

Gloeocapsa arenaria 

Branch Protophyta : Gr. protos, first ; phyton, plant. 

Class Schizophyceae : Gr. scliidzo, split; pliykos, 
seaweed. 

Order Cystiphoreae : Gr. cystis, sack; phora, 
bearing. 

Family Chroococcaceae : Gr. chroos, color; kokkos, 
berry. 

Genus Gloeocapsa : Gr. gloios, glue ; kapsa, chest. 

Species arenaria : L. arena, sand. 

Plant mass mealy, light blue, 1-3 mm. long; cells 
globose to elliptical, slightly granular, blue green, 5-7 
H; furnished with a lamellose colorless sheath, 
grouped in colonies of 2-4-8. 

Growing upon flower pots in the greenhouse. 

The cells are all vegetative and alike, varying in 
shape only during fission. The cells are globose for 
the most part and are nearly homogeneous within, 
neither nucleus nor plastids being visible. Increase 
takes place only by fission, each cell elongating from 
globose to elliptical and constricting at the edge until 
pinched into two new cells. Compared wdth the 
ordinary cell of parenchyma, the cell is much simpler, 
lacking apparently nucleus, plastids, and other cell 
contents. 

The etymologies of the names of the various groups, 
which will be found in the glossary, should be given 
each time a name is repeated, as they make the names 
much more serviceable, though they may be left out 
entirely if they are found to require too much time. 



20 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

DIEECTIONS FOR CUTTING SECTIONS 

The importance of keeping the razor always sharp 
can not be over-estimated. The time lost in vainly 
endeavoring to make a dull razor cut thin sections is 
much more than enough to keep the razor in excellent 
cutting condition. The teacher must see to it that 
razors are kept constantly sharp. The material to be 
sectioned must be as fresh as possible. With rare ex- 
ceptions, preserved material should not be used when 
fresh material is available. The material, whether 
fresh or preserved, should be kept in cold water when 
in use. The specimen from which sections are to be 
cut should be held firmly between the thumb and fore- 
finger, the latter a little lower, affording a support 
for the blade of the razor. The edge of the specimen 
and the razor edge should be kept wet with water in 
order that the razor mav take hold readilv. The 
stroke should be started about an inch from the heel 
of the razor and the latter should be drawn with a 
long sweeping motion clear through the specimen. 
Sections should alwavs be cut at a sinsrle stroke, un- 
less verv lar^^e. The sections are removed from the 
razor and placed in a drop of water on the slide, and 
a clean cover is dropped over them. Care should be 
taken in a temporary mount to avoid bubbles, and 
water outside of the cover. From time to time water 
must be added at the edge of the cover in order to pre- 
vent drying out. The best practice in section cutting 
is to cut a dozen or two sections into a watch-glass of 
water, and then select the thinnest ones. A great deal 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 21 

of time is consumed in stopping to examine each sec- 
tion as it is cut, only to find that it is too thick. If 
the sections are intended for permanent mounting, 
in addition to being thin and complete, they must also 
be uniform, i. e., equally thick throughout. A com- 
mon fault of sections is that the edge is turned. This 
is often due to a dull razor ; sometimes it arises from 
the fact that the razor is pushed against the epidermis 
or bark instead of being drawn obliquely. Finally, a 
thick section should never be used. Thin sections are 
made only by practice. 

PERMANENT MOUNTS 

Permanent mounts of tissues are best made by re- 
moving the water by means of alcohol and mounting 
in balsam. Thin uniform sections are cut into a 
watch-glass of water. If the tissues are delicate, the 
sections should be started in 25 per cent alcohol and 
then changed successively to 45, 60, 75, and 95 per 
cent alcohol, remaining only a few minutes in each. 
They are then placed for one to two minutes in 100 
per cent alcohol, cleared in bergamot oil for five or 
ten minutes, and mounted in balsam. A drop of thin 
balsam is placed in the center of the slide, the section 
placed in it from the bergamot, and the cover laid 
upon it. The cover should be started at one edge of 
the drop and lowered slowly to prevent air bubbles. 
If the latter form, the cover should be removed and a 
new one used. As little balsam as possible should be 
used. If sections of hard tissues, such as woody, 
stony, etc., are to be mounted, they may be started at 



22 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

once in 95 per cent alcohol. It is usually necessary 
to leave them in the latter for several minutes, or 
sometimes even for hours or days, in order that all 
air bubbles may be removed from the tissues. Such 
sections should be stained by placing them from 95 
per cent alcohol into an alcoholic solution of some 
stain, preferably safranin, for five to ten minutes. 
They are then washed in 95 per cent alcohol until 
clouds of stain cease to be given off, run through 100 
per cent, cleared in bergamot, and mounted. Nearly 
all tissues should be stained if permanent mounts are 
to be made of them. For woody tissues, safranin is 
the best ; for cellulose or soft tissues, haematoxylin or 
methyl green. An excellent double stain may be ob- 
tained in sections containing both woody and soft 
tissues by staining them for ten to fifteen minutes 
in safranin, washing in 95 per cent, staining in dilute 
methyl green for ten to fifteen seconds, washing 
quickly in 95 per cent, running through 100 per cent, 
clearing in bergamot and mounting in balsam. 
Spores, pollen grains, etc., may also be mounted in 
balsam, though usually without staining. Algae and 
delicate parts of plants are best mounted in glycerin 
jelly. The algae are run through 10, 20, and 30 per 
cent glycerin and then placed in a drop of jelly on 
the slide. Glycerin jelly is solid at ordinary tempera- 
tures and must be kept warm while in use. It is well 
to keep both slide and cover warm also. The jelly 
solidifies again on cooling and the slide does not re- 
quire sealing. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 23 

PERMANENT MOUNTS — PARAFFIN IMBEDDING 

Paraffin imbedding and sectioning on the microtome 
require considerable apparatus and are inconvenient 
without gas burners. In consequence, they can not 
be carried on in many high schools. A brief outline of 
the method will be given here, however, for the sake 
of those schools where it is possible to make use of 
the paraffin process. The different parts of the pro- 
cess are known as killing, washing, dehydration, 
clearing, infiltration, imbedding, sectioning, and 
mounting. Killing stops the activity of the cells 
quickly and fixes the cell contents so that the subse- 
quent processes will not change them. Washing re- 
moves the killing medium in order that it may not 
prevent ready staining. Dehydration substitutes al- 
cohol for the water of the cell cavity and makes it 
possible to clear the specimens in bergamot oil pre- 
paratory to transferring them to paraffin. Infiltra- 
tion consists in warming the sections in a mixture 
of bergamot and paraffin in order to make it pos- 
sible to imbed them in melted paraffin without harm. 
The material to be imbedded should be killed in 
Flemming's solution, a mixture of acetic, osmic, and 
chromic acids, the length of time necessary depend- 
ing upon the size of the specimens and the kind of 
tissue. The root-tips of the hyacinth are killed in 
4 to 6 hours, while stems and harder tissues require 
12 to 24 hours. The amount of killing solution should 
be at least ten times as much as the bulk of the ma- 
terial. Washing may be effected by leaving the 



24 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

specimens in slowly running or dripping water for a 
time equal to that in which they were killed, or by put- 
ting the specimens in a large bottle or beaker and 
changing the water every hour. Root-tips should be 
started in 10 per cent alcohol and then run every half 
hour or hour through grades 5 per cent apart, i. e., 15, 
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 
and 100 per cent. In the case of harder tissues, the 
specimens should be started in 30 per cent and run 
through a series of alcohols 10 per cent apart, remain- 
ing in each for Ito 3 hours, depending upon the size of 
the specimen. When it is found necessary to inter- 
rupt the process, the material may be left without 
harm in the lower grades of alcohol. As a rule, ma- 
terial should not remain in a grade above 90 per cent 
over night ; most tissues become hardened and brittle 
if left in 100 per cent for more than 8 to 10 hours, 
while root-tips should not be left in it for more than 
3 to 4 hours at the outside. 

CLEARING 

In clearing, the material is placed in a mixture of 
equal parts of 100 per cent alcohol and bergamot oil, 
or part of the 100 per cent used in dehydrating may 
be poured off and the bergamot added directly to the 
remainder. With delicate tissues, root-tips, ovules, 
etc., the specimens are run through four grades con- 
taining respectively 20, 40, 60, and 80 per cent of ber- 
gamot, remaining 1 to 2 hours in each. The latter 
should clear in the bergamot over night, which is also 
sujBficient for harder tissues unless the specimens are 
quite large. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 25 



INFILTRATION 



Infiltration must be carried on at a temperature of 
30° to 45° C. This may be done best by using a water 
bath, preferably number 3535 of the Bausch & Lomb 
catalogue. The bath must be furnished with a ther- 
mometer for reading temperatures, and a thermostat 
for regulating the flow of gas and maintaining the 
bath at a constant temperature. A piece of paraffin 
about equal in bulk to the bergamot is placed in the 
vial containing the latter, and the vial put in the bath 
at the temperature of the room. The burner is lighted 
and the thermostat so regulated that the temperature 
of the oven rises from the room temperature to 45° C. 
in 3 to 4 hours. Infiltration is continued at this tem- 
perature for 1 to 3 hours longer in the case of root tips, 
and for 8 to 10 hours with harder tissues. As the 
paraffin dissolves, more should be added until the ber-. 
gamot will take up no more. 

IMBEDDING 

Imbedding is effected in the same bath. Halves of 
Petri dishes (50 mm., 3802, B. & L.) should be filled 
with paraffin melting at 45° 0. at the time the bath 
reaches 45° in order that paraffin may be melted by 
the time the specimens are ready to be transferred 
from the mixture of bergamot and paraffin. In order 
to remove all the bergamot, it is better to transfer the 
specimens from bergamot-paraffin to melted paraffin 
for two or three hours and then to place them finally 
in the dish in which they are to be imbedded. 



26 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Root-tips should be imbedded altogether for 5 to 6 
hours, while stems, etc., will require 12 to 24 hours. 
The dish should be taken from the bath at the proper 
time and placed on top of the latter, where the speci- 
mens may be arranged with a warm needlepoint. It 
is then placed close at hand with as little jarring as 
possible and allowed to cool until a white film forms 
on the top, when it is floated carefully upon the 
surface of a dish of cold water. As soon as the par- 
affin forms a thick crust, the dish is sunk and the 
paraffin allowed to become hard. In order to remove 
the paraffin block from the Petri dish, the latter is 
placed upside down in a dish of ice water for 2 to 4 
hours, when the block will either fall out or will be 
easily removed by means of a scalpel. The specimens 
should now be cut out of the paraffin. In cutting, it is 
best to leave about the specimen a wide margin, which 
may then be trimmed close, taking care to make the 
faces of the block flat and parallel. A margin should 
be left on one side to permit of easy attachment to the 
stick. 

Each block is then attached to a pine stick about 
25 mm. long and 6 to 8 mm. square by dipping the 
end of the stick in the melted paraffin, placing the 
block squarely upon the end and building up about 
its base with melted paraffin taken up by a pair of 
tweezers. The stick with its block attached should be 
placed in cool water until it is ready to be sectioned. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 27 

CUTTING THE SECTION — THE MICROTOME 

The only microtome within the reach of most high 
schools is the Bausch & Lomb Student's Microtome, 
No. 2500 which, with the universal clamp, may be 
bought for about |20. The barrel microtome may be 
used for cutting paraffin blocks, but the long paraffin 
process is not worth while if a better microtome is 
not available. In sectioning on the microtome, the 
greatest care must be taken to see that the block is 
oriented properly in order that true sections may be 
cut and that the sections, as they are cut, may adhere 
in ribbons. If the sections will not hang together or 
ribbon, the block should be warmed slightly. More 
rarely, the block is too warm and must be cooled, 
though such a condition is usually indicated by a 
failure to cut a section each time. If the ribbon curls, 
the block is not placed squarely with reference to the 
edge of the knife, or it has not been trimmed so that 
the sides are parallel. The razor or knife should never 
be sharpened just before cutting as this will fre- 
quently cause the ribbons to become electrified, mak- 
ing it almost impossible to handle them. 

MOUNTING THE SECTION 

Sections are attached to the slide by means of al- 
bumen. This is prepared by shaking together 25 cc. 
of pure glycerin and 25 cc. of the albumen of eggs with 
^ gm. of sodium salicylate, and filtering. A drop or 
two of the albumen is smeared over the portion of the 
slide to which the sections are to be attached and 



28 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

then rubbed off with a single stroke of the cloth. This 
albumen film is covered with water and the pieces of 
the ribbon of the proper length are floated upon the 
water. The slide is warmed very carefully in order 
to flatten the sections. Great care must be taken not 
to make the slide so warm as to melt the paraf&n. The 
water is then removed by means of a blotter and the 
slide is put away to dry for 2 to 4 hours or as long 
as need be. The removal of the paraffin, staining, 
v/ashing, etc., may be best carried on over a slop jar. 
The steps in the process are as follows : 

1. Warm the slide gently till the paraffin melts; 
wash with a pipette full of xylol. 

2. Wash off the xylol with a half pipette full of 
100 per cent alcohol. 

3. Replace the 100 with 95 per cent alcohol. 

4. Stain. If the stain used is safranin, methyl 
green, or haematoxylin, made up in 95 per cent or 
some other high grade of alcohol, simply cover the 
sections with the stain for 5 to 10 minutes. If the 
stain is made up in water or a low grade of alcohol, 
as in the case of iron-haematoxylin, the slide should 
be washed successively with 75, 55, 35, and 15 per 
cent. 

In staining with iron-haematoxylin, the slide 
should then be placed in water for a minute and then 
in a stain jar of iron alum for 10 minutes to several 
hours as desired. It is next rinsed in water for 2 to 
3 minutes and then is placed in a stain jar of haema- 
toxylin, in which it remains for the same length of 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 29 

time it did in the iron alum. The slide is now differ- 
entiated by placing again in iron-alum for a few 
minutes, glancing at it under the microscope every 
30 seconds till the proper color is obtained. It is 
washed in water for 5 to 10 minutes and run up again 
to 95 per cent alcohol. 

5. Wash with 100 per cent. 

6. Cover with bergamot and clear for 5 minutes. 

7. Kemove excess of bergamot and add one or two 
drops of balsam. Start the cover at one edge and 
lower it slowly to avoid bubbles. 

The slide should be placed, cover up, in a slide box 
to harden, which will require a short or long time 
according to the thinness of the balsam. 

REAGENTS 

The following simple formulae for reagents will be 
found useful to the teacher. Both safranin and 
methyl green should be made up in 2 per cent solu- 
tion, 2 gms. of the stain to 100 cc. of 95 per cent 
alcohol. Delafield's haematoxylin is made by dissolv- 
ing 1 gm. of haematoxylin crystals in 10 cc. of 95 
per cent alcohol and adding it to 100 cc. of a satu- 
rated solution of ammonia alum. This mixture is 
allowed to ripen in a loosely stoppered bottle placed 
in the sunlight for three or four days, when it is 
filtered and 25 cc. of pure glycerin and 25 cc. of 
methyl alcohol are added. After standing for several 
days, the solution is filtered again and is then ready 
for use. The above solutions will keep indefinitely. 
For staining with iron-haematoxylin, a 2 per cent so- 
lution of ammonio-ferric-alum in distilled water is 



30 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

used and a | per cent solution of haematoxylin in 
distilled water. Neither of these solutions keep very 
well and should be made up in small quantities. The 
formula for Flemming's solution (1) is 60 cc. 1 per 
cent solution of chromic acid in tap water, 5 cc. 1 per 
cent solution of osmic acid, and 1 cc. glacial acetic 
acid. Glycerin jelly may be prepared by soaking 5 
gms. of pure white gelatin in 50 cc. of distilled water, 
adding 50 cc. of pure glycerin and 1 gm. of phenol. 
The usual solution of iodin consists of -| gm. of 
metallic iodin, 1 gm. of potassic iodid and 100 cc. of 
water. Glycerin is made up in 50 per cent or 12 per 
cent solution in water, according to whether it is used 
for plasmolysis or for general use. Potash is used in 
10 per cent or 25 per cent solution in water. For 
ordinary use commercial balsam should be diluted 
-J to 4 its volume with xylol or chloroform. A con- 
venient and sufficiently accurate formula for diluting 
alcohol is the following : desired any per cent between 
10 and 30, take as many cubic centimeters plus one 
of 95 per cent alcohol and add water to make up 100 
cc. ; between 30 and 50, add two to the grade desired ; 
between 50 and 70 add four, and between 70 and 90 
add five. 

REFERENCES IN THE TEXT 

Unless otherwise specified all references in the text 
will be to Bessey's "Essentials of Botany," seventh 
edition. References in Roman numerals are to plates 
in Part I and II of the Flora of Nebraska. The num- 
her following the directions for drawing indicates the 
scale to ivhich the object is to be drawn. 



PLANT STRUCTURE OR HISTOLOGY 

THE CELL 
Cell wall (6)— 

Primitive walls — 

1. Protococcus viridis, green slime: scrape off 
a little of the green growth on the outside of 
flower pots and carefully pick it apart ; note 
the extreme thinness of the cell-wall except 
in certain resting stages, where it is a thick 
. colorless band ; draw several cells or plants, 
showing wall and contents; 5.** 
The nucleus is not evident; the body which 
suggests it is usually a pyrenoid, a small bit 
of cytoplasm in which starch is stored, 
(f. 66, a. 135.) 

*2. Spirogyra sp., pond scum : mount a few 
filaments and note carefully the side and end 
walls; describe the wall, thinness, color, 
structure, etc., and draw one cell showing 
these points; 1. The nucleus usually shows 
very plainly in the center of the cell sur- 
rounded by radiating threads of protoplasm. 
The chloroplasts are green, ribbon-like 
bodies of protoplasm disposed spirally in the 
cell. 
Is the cell wall composed of distinct layers? 



** Note remark in italics — bottom of page 30. 

*Spirogyra sp. The "sp." indicates any or no particular species. 



32 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Is it lined on the inner surface with cyto- 
plasm or with cell sap? (141, f. 73, p. 142.) 

3. Funaria hygrometrica^ moss : remove one or 
two leaves from the stem and mount them; 
the cells are here united into a tissue and the 
wall between two cell cavities is a double 
one formed by cementing the two walls to- 
gether; draw a group of four or five cells, 
showing the wall but disregarding the green 
chloroplasts ; 1. 

Do you find any evidence of the double wall? 
(f.8,p.l3.) 

Modified walls — 

4. Hibiscus sp,^ mallow: mount a few pollen 
grains, taking care not to crush them ; draw 
one cell showing the external modifications 
of the wall; crush the cell and note the con- 
tents; 1. From the crushed cells it is pos- 
sible to tell whether the spines arise from 
the thickening or from a pushing-out of the 
wall. (f. 149, p. 252.) 

5. Puccinia graminis, grain rust: remove a 
spore dot or sorus of the black rust or rest- 
ing stage and pick it apart ; note the varying 
thickness of the wall in different parts of 
the same cell and in corresponding parts of 
different cells; draw two or three spores 
showing various thicknesses of the wall : 2. 
How many cells in each spore? Has the 
stalk cell any protoplasm? Where is the 



HISTOLOGY 33 

wall the thickest? Why? How does the 
growth of the spores in masses explain the 
varying thickness of wall in the same spore? 
(191, f. 113, II, III, p. 192; f. 114, p. 194.) 

6. Pirus communis^ pear: cut longisections of 
the stems of mature pears, stain in safranin 
and mount in balsam ; note the square stone 
cells, describing minutely the structure of 
the greatly thickened wall; note the canals 
which radiate from the small cavity and the 
striations which run parallel to it ; 2. 
Explain the pits which appear in the back 
wall? Why do the canals of adjacent cells 
coincide? Why are the striations concen- 
tric? Do any canals branch? Can you find 
any indication of the original thin wall be- 
tween the cells? (23, f. 14, p. 24.) 

Cell formation (9)— 

Fission — 

7. Nostoc commune^ j^Hy chain : crush and 
separate the thallus before mounting; select 
a filament in which the cells are of difCerent 
length ; note that certain cells are just twice 
as long as others, while some intermediate 
in length show a slight constriction on either 
side ; draw 10 or 12 cells of a filament show- 
ing a variety of stages, preferably including 
the heterocyst; 4. 

The normal cells are globose or somewhat 
elliptical, those ready for fission about twice 

2 



34 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

as long. Fission starts by the pinching in of 
the side walls and is completed by the forma- 
tion of an end wall between the points of 
constriction. In Anabaena, a related plant, 
the growth and pinching in of the wall occur 
at the same time. The heterocyst is a clear 
yellowish cell found at intervals in the fila- 
ment, (f. 61, p. 126.) 

8. Oscillatoria tenuis, thread slime: mount a 
few filaments and note the compact way in 
which the cells are united; draw one fila- 
ment, giving especial attention to the curved 
apical portion ; 1. 

Do all the cells undergo fission? What is 
the purpose of the apical cell? Is there a 
sheath about the filament? Explain why 
some cells are twice the length of others. 
How many movements has the filament? 
(f. 61, p. 126.) 

Budding — 

9. Saccharomyces cerevisiaey yeast: make a 
yeast culture by adding a small amount of 
"yeast foam" to a 10 per cent solution of 
cane sugar and keep at 30° to 35° C. for 24 
hours; mount a drop of the solution and ex- 
amine for budding cells; draw several cells 
showing different stages in the formation of 
a single bud, also one or two groups showing 
repeated budding; 3. 

The nucleus does not show ; the central bodv 



HISTOLOGY 35 

is a vacuole. Are there any chloroplasts 
present ? Does one cell ever give rise to more 
than one bud? Distinguish between bud- 
ding and fission. Is a new cross wall formed 
in budding? Stain lightly with iodin; what 
are the blue bodies? What part do they 
play? (189, f. 112, p. 190.) 
Union — 

10. Splrogi/ra nit Ida ^ pond scum : mount a few 
fruiting threads and examine those parallel 
ones in which one thread is empty, the other 
filled with an elliptical resting spore or 
zygote; draw four cells, tAvo from each fila- 
ment, paying especial attention to the con- 
jugating tubes which connect them ; f . 
How is the zygote formed? How does the 
protoplasm cross from one cell to the other? 
Explain the origin of the conjugating tubes. 
Why should the zygote have a thick wall? 
Is any protoplasm left in the clear cell? 
(143, f. 73, p. 142.) 

Cell contents — 

Protoplasm (1) — 

11. Lycopersicum esculentuniy tomato : cut 
thin transections of a young flower stalk, 
taking care not to injure the hairs ; examine 
the basal cells of the latter for streaming 
protoplasm and nucleus ; draw a typical cell 
showing the threads of protoplasm, nucleus, 
nucleolus, vacuoles, and the pale green 
bodies, the plastids ; 1. 



36 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Is there a layer of protoplasm lining the wall 
of the cell? Why? Does the protoplasm 
move in a definite direction? Does it pass 
from one cell to another? Does the nucleus 
move? Note the effect of iodin. (f. 26, p. 
43.) 

12. yitella flexilis, stonewort: remove the 
whorl of cells from the apex of a growing 
leaf and mount with little pressure ; draw in 
optical section a cell in which the proto- 
plasm is streaming actively, paying especial 
attention to the structure of the latter; 1. 
The cell contains a number of oblong nuclei 
which can not be seen without staining. 
What are the small green bodies along the 
inner surface of the wall? Do they move? 
Do the granules move more slowly at the 
sides or in the center of the cell? Does the 
protoplasm flow more than one way in the 
same cell? Contrast this movement with 
that of the protoplasm of the tomato hair. 

Chromatophoees (2,12) — 

Chloroplasts — 

13. Funaria liijgroinetrica, moss: remove and 
mount two or three leaves ; the lower oblong 
cells of the base of the l^f show the indi- 
vidual plastids best ; draw a cell in which are 
shown the various stages of the fission of 
the plastids, giving to each its exact form 
and position ; stain with iodin ; 2. 



HISTOLOGY 37 

Contrast the fission here with that of the 
cells of Nostoc. Do the plastids contain 
starch grains? Do they have a distinct wall 
or membrane? (f. 8, p. 13.) 

14. Zehrina pendiila, wandering Jew : mount a 
thin longisection of the stem from just be- 
neath the epidermis; stain very lightly with 
iodin; draw one cell showing the various 
stages of chloroplasts and starch grains; 1. 
How many starch grains in a plastid? In 
what part of the latter do they occur? Do 
you see any starch grain not in contact with 
a plastid? 

Chromoplasts — 

15. Tropaeolum majus, "nasturtium" : tear a 
piece of petal into small bits and mount ; the 
bright yellow color is due in most cells to 
numerous yellow balls of protoplasm, in a 
few cells the chromoplasts are needle- or 
crescent-shaped ; draw one cell of each kind ; 
2. Stain with iodin. 

Do these chromoplasts contain starch? Do 
they show fission? Which are the normal 
ones, the spherical or needle-shaped? 
Leucoplasts — 

16. Zehrina pendida, wandering Jew : slip the 
point of the scalpel beneath the epidermis 
of the stem and strip the latter off free from 
green cells below; the nucleus usually occu- 
pies the center of the clear epidermal cells, 



88 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

surrounded by a few threads of protoplasm 
wliicli run to the wall; the leucoplasts are 
round clear bodies lying upon the nucleus 
and occasionally found scattered in the cell ; 
1. Stain with iodin. 

Do the leucoplasts divide? Do they contain 
starch? Is there protoplasmic movement in 
the threads? Has this anything to do with 
the leucoplasts? 
Starch (14) — 

17. Solaniim tuherosum, potato: cut a section 
from the fresh surface of a tuber ; draw two 
cells showing various grains and paying par- 
ticular attention to the striations of the 
latter; 2. Stain with iodin to demonstrate 
if possible the presence of protoplasm in 
the cell. 

Do you find any plastids in the cell? What 
is the hilum? Explain how the striations 
arise. Why is the gniin called excentric? 
Explain its form. 

18. Fisiim sativum, garden pea : cut a few thin 
shavings from the flat surface of a split pea 
and mount them in weak alcohol; draw one 
cell showing the grains of starch with their 
striations and the small granules in which 
they are imbedded ; 1. Stain with iodin. 
Are the grains concentric or excentric? Is 
there a hilum? Note the thickened cell wall. 
Explain the triangular space at the corners 
of the cells, (f. 9, p. 15.) 



histology 39 

Aleurone (16) — 

19. Phascolus vulgaris, bean : mount in weak 
alcohol a few shavings from the flat surface 
of a split bean; stain lightly with iodin; 
draw one cell showing wall, starch, and 
aleurone; 1. 

Replace the alcohol with water. What 
happens? Are the aleurone grains definite 
in size or shape? Do they have striations? 
Explain their position in the cell. Does 
aleurone give the same color with iodin that 
living protoplasm does? 

20. Triticum sativum , wheat: divide a grain 
transversely and cut shaving sections across 
the edge; stain one section lightly with 
iodin to locate the aleurone and starch; 
draw a strip three or four cells wide extend- 
ing from the outer bran into the mass of 
starch; 1. 

Where is the aleurone found? Is it distinct 
from the starch? Do you find starch any- 
where in the aleurone cells or vice versa? 
Why is graham bread more nutritious than 
wheat bread? Contrast the position of the 
aleurone in the bean and the wheat. 
Crystals (17) — 

21. Zehrina pendula, wandering Jew: make a 
thin longisection of the stem; occasionally 
cells will be found filled with crystals, but 
usually the latter are scattered about; if 



40 MANUAL OF BOTAXY 

possible draw both sorts of crystals in posi- 
tion in tlie cells ; with the long ones it may be 
necessary to draw several crystals sepa- 
ratelv; 1. 

"VMiat two shapes do the crystals assume? 
Do both forms occur in the same cell? Are 
the crystal cells found in definite positions 
in the tissue? Add a drop of hydrochloric 
acid at the edge of the cover. What hap- 
pens? (f. 12, p. IT.) 

22. Begonia sp., begonia: cut a thin longisec- 
tion of the stem; draw a group of several 
cells, showing definitely the position of the 
crystal-bearing ones and paying especial at- 
tention to the structure of the crystal itself; 

a 
3* 

Do the crystal cells have a definite position 
in the tissue? Does there appear to be any 
relation between this and the long bundles 
of fibers in the stem? How manv crvstals in 
each cell? Whv? Is the crystal a single 
one or a group of crystals? TSTiat is the 
usual shape of the individual crystals? 
(f.l2, p. 17.) 

THE TISSUES 
Primarj' tissue (21, 36)— 

Meeistem — 

23. Hyacinthus orieniaUs, hyacinth: root tips 
are obtained by growing the bulbs in flower 
pots, or, better, in wide-mouthed bottles or 



HISTOLOGY 41 

bulb glasses ; make very thin transections of 
the tips and, if possible, longisections also; 
note the characteristics of the individual 
cells, pay especial attention to their form 
and the way in which they are united to con- 
stitute a tissue ; draw a group of 8 or 10 cells ; 
1. Stain with iodin. 

Explain the large nucleus and the abund- 
ance of protoplasm. Are the vacuoles few 
or many? Why should the cells show such 
regularity in size and arrangement? Do you 
find any intercellular spaces. Why? Do the 
cells contain starch? Plastids? Why? Do 
you find more than one nucleolus in any of 
the nuclei? Can you distinguish the two 
component walls in the double wall between 
two adjacent cell cavities? (f. 25, p. 37.) 
Secondary or modified tissues — 

Parenchyma^ Soft tissue (21) — 

24. Begonia sp., be.2:onia: mount thin trans- 
and longisections of the stem; note the dif- 
ferences which the cells show in the two 
sections and draw a group of 4 or 5 cells 
from each; |. Stain with iodin. 
Contrast the cells of soft tissue with those of 
meristem with respect to size, shape, ar- 
rangement, amount of protoplasm, nucleus, 
wall, vacuoles, etc. Explain the intercellu- 
lar spaces. Are they found in longisection? 
Why? Do you find starch or plastids? 



42 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Explain why the transection of the cell is dif- 
ferent from the longisection. Is the cell wall 
thickened? Add a small drop of strong sul- 
phuric acid to sections stained with iodin; 
the cellulose walls turn a dark blue, the char- 
acteristic test for this substance, (f. 40, p. 
62.) 
CoLLENCHYMA, Thick-augled tissue (22) — 

25. Begonia sp., begonia: mount a thin tran- 
section of the stem; the thick-angled cells 
are found directly beneath the single-rowed 
epidermis and are easily recognised by the 
bright thickened places in the corners of the 
cells ; draw a group of 8 or 10 cells showing 
how the cells with greatly thickened corners 
next the epidermis pass gradually into the 
soft tissue cells of the interior of the stem. 
Are there any cells in which the walls are 
thickened at the sides as well as in the 
corners? Can you find any trace of the 
original wall in the thickened angles? Do 
the thickenings show any layers? Why? 
Do you find any nuclei or plastids? What 
purpose does the thickening of the angles 
serve? Determine by the iodin-sulphuric 
acid test* whether the angles are composed 
of cellulose. Beta vulgaris, beet, leaf-stalk : 
Micrampelis lobata, wild cucumber, stem, 
(f. 13, p. 22.) 



* Cf. line 3 above. 



HISTOLOGY 43 

ScLERENCHYMA, Stony tissue (23) — 

2(}. Pirns communis, pear : make small tliin 
trans- and longisections of the fruit-stalk of 
the pear; stain in safranin for 10 minutes 
and wash in 95 per cent alcohol ; the sections 
may be mounted in water, or they may be 
run up and mounted in balsam in the usual 
way; the stone fibers are found in dense 
white bundles arranged in a circle in the 
center of the stem, the stone cells are scat- 
tered here and there between the bundles and 
the outside of the stem; in the longisection 
they occupy the same places, but are best 
recognized by their difference in shape ; draw 
a group of 3 stone cells, preferably from the 
longisection and a group of stone fibers from 
each section; 1. 

Contrast stone cells and stone fibers in both 
sections, with respect to shape, size, posi- 
tion, arrangement, wall, canals, contents, 
etc. To which is the term isodiametric ap- 
plied? Do the radiating canals of two ad- 
jacent stone cells coincide? Why? Explain 
the striations in the stone cells. Why are 
they concentric? Explain the pits in the 
hack wall. Is there a nucleus? Why? Add 
anilin sulphate to the sections and, in 10 
minutes, a drop of concentrated sulphuric 
acid; the yellow color is the characteristic 
test for stony tissue, (f. 14, p. 24.) 



44 manual of botany 

Fibrous tissue (24) — 

27. Fraxinus lanceolata, green ash: split a 
small bit of twig and make thin trans- and 
radial longisections at the edge in such a 
way as to pass through the bark and the 
outer part of the wood ; the bark will show a 
ring of bright w^hite bundles of thick-walled 
fibers, bast, in the green parenchyma, and 
the woody portion will show a compact tissue 
made up of wood fibers; in the longisection 
the bast fibers are readily distinguished by 
their position and thick walls; draw from 
the transection a bundle of bast fibers, pay- 
ing especial attention to the striations of the 
wall, and a group of wood fibers ; draw from 
the longisection a s:roup of bast fibers, show- 
ing, if possible, the ends of some, and a num- 
ber of wood fibers, showing the various ends 
and the way they join in the tissue; 1. 
Compare bast fibers and wood fibers in both 
sections. Show how each is best suited to 
its position. Do you find any indication of 
the original thin wall in the present thick 
wall of the fibers? Do the walls of the wood 
fibers have layers? Are there cells contents 
in either sort of fiber? Do the walls show 
canals or other markings? Explain why the 
ends are tapering. Make the lignin or wood 
test with anilin sulphate-sulphuric acid. (f. 
15, p. 25.) 



histology 45 

Sieve tissue (28) — 

28. Micrampelis lohata, wild cucumber: cut 
thin trans- and longisections of the stem, 
taking care that the latter pass through the 
fibrovascular bundles, the long threads 
which project into the central cavity and 
contain openings visible to the eye; in the 
transection, the center of each bundle is oc- 
cupied by three or four large circles, cross- 
sections of vessels ; next these on either side 
are several rows of very small, mostly rect- 
angular cells, and imbedded in these, or just 
outside them, a row of larger polygonal or 
round openings — the sieve tubes; in the 
longisections the tubes are recognized by 
their position on the outside of the bundle 
and by the broad masses of protoplasm, some- 
times callose, on either side of the end parti- 
tion or sieve plate; if the transection is cut 
near a sieve plate, the perforations of the 
latter will appear as small black points in 
the cross-section of the tube ; draw from the 
transection the sieve portion of the bundle, 
showing the point just mentioned, and from 
the longisection a number of tubes showing 
the cross-section of the sieve plates and the 
funnel-like protoplasmic column on either 
side ; notice the small rectangular companion 
cell, touching the sieve tube, with its nucleus 
and densely granular protoplasm ; 1. 



46 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Are the two protoplasms on either side of 
the sieve plate in connection? Are the sieve 
tubes nucleate? Do you find either starch 
. or plastids present? Make the cellulose test. 
Cucurbita pepo, pumpkin, leaf-stalk, (f. 18, 
p. 29.) 
Milk tissue (26) — 

29. Euphorbia splendens, spurge: make trans- 
and longisections of the stem; in the tran- 
section, the milk tubes appear as small 
thick-walled circles just outside the ring of 
woody tissue in the center, in the longisection 
as branching tubes filled with a sticky 
granular liquid ; draw several tubes in longi- 
section, showing position in the tissue, con- 
tents, etc. ; 1. Stain with iodin. 

What are the bone-shaped granules in the 
tubes? Do you find plastids or nuclei? Do 
you find striations in the wall of the tube? 
Asclepias syriaca, milkweed, stem. (f. 16, 
p. 27.) 
Tracheary tissue (30) — 
Tracheae or vessels — 

30. Impatiens halsaniina, balsam, touch-me- 
not : cut radial longisections of the stem ; the 
fibrovascular bundles will show a succession 
of cylindrical vessels with the walls thick- 
ened in various ways ; the simplest have cir- 
cular or spiral thickenings on the inner sur- 
face, these passing into net-like or reticulate 



HISTOLOGY 47 

markings and the latter finally giving 
rise to pits ; draw a group of vessels showing 
the various stages of development from 
ringed to pitted walls ; 1. 
Have the vessels nuclei or contents? Do 
you find any cross-partitions? Any hint of 
their former presence? What is the purpose 
of the thickenings? How were they formed? 
Make the lignin test. (f. 20, p. 31.) 
Tracheids (33) — 

31. Pinus austriaca, Austrian pine: make 
transverse and both radial and tangential 
longitudinal sections of a young twig; the 
entire woody tissue, with the exception of 
the occasional medullary rays, consists of 
tracheids; draw a group of tracheids from 
each of the three sections, paying especial 
attention to the bordered pits in the walls; 
1. The transection and the tangential longi- 
section will give a cross-section of the bor- 
dered pits; the radial longisection a front 
view of them. 

Explain the structure of the pits, especially 
the border. Do they occur in rows? Why? 
How many parts to the cell wall in the tran- 
section? Is there any suggestion of canals? 
Do the tracheids have contents? Sequoia 
sempervirens, redwood, (f. 23, p. 33.) 



48 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

THE TISSUE SYSTEMS 
Epidermal system (40): 

Epidermis — 

32. Agave americanaj century plant : make thin 
transections of the epidermis of a joung leaf ; 
draw 4 or 5 cells, paying especial attention 
to the cuticle, the thick outer wall ; 1. 

Do you find a nucleus or plastids? Is there 
any protoplasm present? How is the outer 
wall thickened? Does it show layers? Make 
the cellulose and lignin tests. What are the 
outer layers? 
Stomata or breathing pores (44) — 

33. Agave americaiia^ century plant: in the 
sections made above, the epidermis shows 
openings into the interior of the leaf, which 
are guarded by peculiarly modified cells; 
draw one stoma, showing the epidermal cells, 
guard cells, and the parenchyma cells which 
surround the air chamber ; 1. 

What are the guard cells? What is their 
function? Do they make starch? Why? 
Are they closed or open in your section? 
Why are they thin- walled? What is the 
purpose of the chimney formed by the epider- 
mal cells? What is the purpose of the air 
chamber beneath the stoma? Does it have 
any connection with the spaces between the 
cells of the leaf? Stain with iodin. 



HISTOLOGY 49 

34. Begonia sp., begonia: strip a small piece of 
epidermis from both surfaces of a leaf and 
mount in weak alcohol ; if there is sufl&cient 
difference to warrant, draw a group of 
stomata from each surface; 2. 

Compare the top view of the stoma thus ob- 
tained with the sectional view in the experi- 
ment above. Are the stomata single or in 
groups? Contrast the guard cells with the 
epidermal cells. Are any of the stomata 
open? Do the walls of the guard cells next 
the opening show any peculiarity? Why? 
Which has the larger number of stomata, 
upper or lower surface? Why? Under the 
low power count the number of stomata in a 
given space, (f. 29, p. 44.) 

Hairs (42) — 

35. Lycopersicum esculentum, tomato : jnount 
thin transections of the upper part of a 
young stem; note the three sorts of hairs, 
paying especial attention to the way in 
which they arise from the epidermal cells; 
draw a hair of each sort giving in detail its 
connection with the epidermis; 1. The 
largest hair may well be drawn to a scale of 
fori. 

Compare the origin and structure of the 
three sorts of hairs. From this can you sug- 
gest any explanation of their function? In 



50, MANUAL OF BOTANY 

what way do the cells of the hairs differ from 
epidermal cells — from soft tissue cells? (f. 
26, p. 43.) 
Fibrovascular system (46); 

Collateral bundles — Closed type — 

36. Zea maySj corn : mount thin transections of 
the stem; draw a complete bundle; 1. 
Distinguish the wood or xylem portion of 
the bundle from the sieve or phloem portion. 
Which is on the side toward the surface of 
the stem? Do you find any companion cells 
with the sieve tubes? What is the bundle 
sheath? Is it complete? Point out the 
various kinds of tissues which make up the 
bundle? Is there any meristem or growing 
tissue in it? What is the position of the 
bundles in the stem? (f. 30, p. 47.) 

Open type — 

37. Impatiens halsamina, balsam : mount thin 
trans- and longisections of the full-grown 
stem ; draw a bundle in both views, showing 
in the transection the ring of meristem or 
cambium, upon which the bundles are 
strung, at either side; 1. 

Compare the position in the stem of the open 
and of the closed type of bundle. What rela- 
tion has the ring of cambium to this fact? 
Locate the xylem and phloem parts of the 
bundle. What kind of tissue separates 
them? Point out the wood fibers, tracheary 



HISTOLOGY 51 

vessels, sieve tubes, etc. Which parts are 
lignified? Which are composed of cellulose? 
Do you find any young bundles? How do 
they arise? How are they different from the 
old ones? (f. 20, p. 31; f. 31, p. 48; f. 32, p. 
49.) 
Radial bundles — 

38. Zea mays, corn : make thin transections of 
well-developed roots; make a diagrammatic 
sketch, showing the position of xylem and 
phloem in the bundle and a detailed drawing 
of a segment, showing the pith, two xylem 
and phloem rays, and the corresponding por- 
tion of the bundle sheath ; 1. 

How many radial bundles in each root? 
What is its position? Contrast the radial 
bundle with both types of the collateral. Is 
there any cambium in the bundle? (f. 33, 
p. 51.) 
Concentric bundles — 

39. Pteris aquilina, brake fern : cut thin tran- 
sections of the root-stalk; draw a small 
bundle or a portion of a larger one ; 1. 

Is there more than one bundle in the stem? 
What of their position? Is there any cam- 
bium present? Any sieve tissue? Compare 
with the radial bundle, (f. 36, p. 54.) Make 
diagrammatic drawings of the four transec* 
tions studied above, showing the relativ 
number and position of the bundles. 



52 manual of botany 

Reduced bundles — 

40. Populus deltoideSj cottonwood : make thin 
superficial sections from the under surface 
of the leaf, cutting through some of the sec- 
ondary veins; draw a segment from the re- 
duced bundle thus exposed, showing the leaf 
parenchyma, mesophyll, on either side and 
the detail of the bundle; 1. 

Compare the reduced bundle with the longi- 
section of the open bundle of Impatiens. 
What tissues and vessels are still found in it? 
Is the bundle sheath still present? Are the 
reduced bundles of the leaves connected with 
the complete ones of the stem? Point out 
why this must be so both structurally and 
functionally, (f. 37, p. 58.) 
Fundamental system (57): 

Intercellular spaces — 

41. Scirpus lacustriSj bulrush : make thin tran- 
sections of the stem ; note the extremely large 
intercellular spaces, across which are 
stretched thin plates or diaphragms of two 

• different patterns; draw an intercellular 
space with its walls and diaphragm, i, and a 
few cells from both sorts of diaphragms, 1. 
Compare these spaces with the small trian- 
gular spaces so common in soft tissue. Do 
you find connecting forms between the lat- 
ticed and the stellate diaphragms? Is there 
an explanation of these spaces and 



HISTOLOGY 53 

diaphragms in the fact that the bulrush is a 
water plant? Point out the tissues of the 
fundamental system, (f. 41, p. 63.) 
Secretory passages — Resin canals — 

42. Piniis austriaca, Austrian pine : make thin 
transections of the leaf; the center is occu- 
pied by the fibrovascular system, the edge by 
the one-layered epidermis^ the remainder is 

* the fundamental system, in the chlorophyll- 
bearing tissue of which are found the resin 
or turpentine canals; draw a canal showing 
the detail ; 2. 

How many tissues in the fundamental sys- 
tem of the pine leaf? What is the function 
of the fibrous tissue at the edge? How many 
parts in the canal? What is the purpose of 
the outer row of cells? What kind of fibers 
are they? What is the function of the cells 
next the cavity of the canal? 
Mucilage canals — 

43. Sagittaria latifolia, arrowhead: make a 
thin transection of the petiole; the mucilage 
canals are found where the walls of the in- 
tercellular spaces join; draw a couple of 
canals, showing their location and structure ; 

14- 

From the spaces of the stem, in what sort of 
places must the arrowhead grow? Are there 
any diaphragms? Point out the different 
systems and tissues. How many parts to the 
canal? (f. 42, p. 63.) 



54 manual of botany 

Cork (59) — 

44. Samhiwus canadensis, elderberry: make a 
thin transection of the stem through the 
raised corky masses or lenticels; draw the 
cork mass in the lenticel and the cork-pro- 
ducing meristem or phellogen just beneath; 
1. 

Compare cork with parenchyma. Make the 
cellulose and lignin tests with it. Why is 
the lenticel filled with cork? What is the 
function of cork tissue? (f. 38, p. 59; f. 60, 
p. 39.) 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 
branch f»rotof»myta 

Class Schizophyceae 

ORDER CYSTIPHOREAE 

FAMILY CnaOOCOCCACEAE 

1. Gloeocapsa arenaria: draw several colonies, show- 
ing the development from a single-celled colony 
to those having 8 or 16 cells ; 3. 
Are the cells all alike? Explain the layered wall. 
Why are the cells round or spherical? Do they 
show any of the usual cell contents? Can you 
distinguish a nucleus or a definite cytoplasm? 
How do the cells increase? Point out the differ- 
ent steps in the process. Do you find any move- 
ment of the cells? Compare the cell of this 
simple plant with an ordinary parenchyma cell. 
The plants contain chlorophyll though this is 
concealed by a blue green coloring matter called 
phycocyanin which is present throughout the 
entire branch. Each cell contains a single cylin- 
drical plastid; the granularity of the cytoplasm 
is due to granules of food material of uncertain 
composition, probably related to aleurone. (f. 
60, p. 126; I, 3.) 



56 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

ORDER NEMATOGBNBAE 

FAMILY NOSTOCACEAE 

2. Nostoc commune: draw a thread showing the 

heterocysts and the different stages of fission in 
the vegetative cells, also the spores if any are 
present; 2. 

What is the character of the thallus or mass in 
which the filaments are imbedded? Is fission 
here essentially the same as in Gloeocapsa? In 
what way do the vegetative cells differ? Con- 
trast spores and heterocysts with the vegetative 
cells from which they are derived. Point out the 
steps in evolution by which a Gloeocapsa might 
have become a Nostoc. Show why the latter is 
higher. What other ways of increase has Nostoc 
besides the fission of its vegetative cells? (f. 61, 
p. 126:1,4.) 

FAMILY OSCILLATOEIACEAE 

3. Oscillatoria tenuis: draw one or two threads, pay- 

ing especial attention to the tip and to fission and 
noting the disposition of the granules ; 2. 
Do you find spores and heterocysts? Compare 
the fission with that of Nostoc. Explain the tip 
cell. How many movements have the filaments? 
Show how in one sense Oscillatoria is lower than 
Nostoc; in another higher. Does it have a defi- 
nite thallus? In addition to fission, propagation 
occurs by means of the breaking up of the fila- 
ment into short pieces which slip out of the thin 
sheath and grow into new filaments. These 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 57 

bodies are called hormogones and are often seen 
forming in the filament, at which j>oint the thin 
sheath usually becomes visible, (f. 61, p. 126: I, 
16.) 

FAMILY SCYTONEMATACEAE 

4. Scytonema cinereum: draw a portion of a thread, 

showing one or two false branches and the 
heterocysts, also the sheath and different stages 
of the vegetative cells ; 2. 

Point out the differences between Scytonema and 
Oscillatoria. Do these filaments move? Does 
the presence of a thick sheath explain this at 
all? Are there any spores? Hormogones? Why 
do we speak of false branching? Show why 
Scytonema is higher than Oscillatoria and Nos- 
toc. What sort of a thallus does it form? (II, 
24.) 

FAMILY RIVXJLABIACEAE 

5. Gloeotrichia piswn : draw a complete thread, show- 

ing especially the vegetative cells which are un- 
dergoing fission; 1. 

What sort of a thallus has this plant? Is it like 
any you have had? How are the filaments ar- 
ranged in the thallus? Does the thread move? 
Why? Does it have spores and heterocysts? 
Does fission occur anywhere in the thread or at a 
definite place? Why? Explain the long cells of 
the lash at the tip. Do they divide? What of 
the sheath ? Show how a Gloeotrichia might have 
developed from a Scytonema. (Ill, 33.) 



58 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

FAMILY BACTERIACEAE 

6. Bacillus suhtiUs: keep a bottle containing pond or 

creek water and a few algae tightly corked for 
24 to 48 hours; a drop of the culture will show 
under the high power great numbers of short 
thread-like colorless plants moving about actively 
in the field; if they can not be observed readily, 
kill and stain them by adding a drop of gentian 
violet at the edge of the cover; draw several 
plants; 5. 

Account for the absence of chorophyll. Is there 
a distinct wall? Can you distinguish cytoplasm 
or nucleus? Are the cells all alike except for 
size? Is there anv trace of fission? Contrast the 
movement with that shown by Oscillatoria. 
Show what changes are necessary to derive 
Bacillus from Oscillatoria. (f. 62, p. 128.) 

7. Bpirillum undula: in the above culture there will 

be found bacteria resembling Bacillus but exhib- 
iting a spiral or snake-like motion ; draw several 
of these cells, paying especial attention to the 
turns of the spiral ; 5. 

Compare Spirillum and Bacillus. Docs the 
former always move with the same end forward? 
What does this indicate? Stain with gentian 
violet if necessary, (f. 62, p. 128.) 



structure and classification 59 

branch f»hycof»hyta 

Class Chlorophycp:ae 

ORDER PROTOCOCCOIDBAE 

FAMILY PLEUROCOCCACEAE 

8. Protococciis viridis: remove and mount a little of 

the green crust which grows on flower pots in 
greenhouses and upon the bark of trees ; a plenti- 
ful supply of the plant may be obtained by teas- 
ing apart the grey lichens which grow on trees; 
draw several single plants and also a cluster; 2. 
Is there a definite wall? Plastids? Note the 
different stages of fission. Compare with the 
same process in the blue green slimes. Are the 
cells in definite colonies or are they simply 
clustered? Compare Protococcus with Gloeo- 
capsa. (f. 66, p. 135 : IV, 11.) 

9. Scetiedesmus ohliquus: draw several groups, show- 

ing the cells in 4's, 8's, etc. ; 2. 
Do the cells occur in definite colonies? Can you 
explain this grouping? Contrast the fission with 
that shown by Protococcus. Do the cells have 
pyrenoids? Are any of the cells pointed or 
spiny? Why? Do you find the protoplasm 
rounding up in any of the cells or escaping as a 
spherical moving cell, the zoogonid? Sometimes 
the latter are found swimming about in the 
mount in great numbers. ( f . 66, h, p. 135 : IV, 
10.) 

FAMILY DESMIDIACEAE 

10. Closterium lanceolatum: draw one cell, paying 
especial attention to the structure; each plant is 



60 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

composed of two so-called half-cells, the separa- 
tion of the two being indicated by a clear space in 
the center of the cell; at either end is a clear 
bubble or vacuole filled with tiny oblong bodies 
resembling bacteria in active motion; these are 
crystals of gypsum, calcium sulphate, which are 
to be regarded as waste products of the plant ; 1. 
Do vou find anv evidence that the wall is com- 
posed of two parts or valves? How many plas- 
tids are there? Do thev run the length of the 
plant? Do they lie against the wall or centrally 
in the cavity? Wliere are the pyrenoids? Con- 
trast a Closterium ^uth a Protococcus cell. Do 
the cells move? (f. 71, p. 139 : V, 1.) 

FAMILY BACHXASIACEAE 

11. 'NavicuJa viridis: draw one live cell, showing the 

plastids and if possible a dead one showing the 
striations of the silicious wall ; 1. 
To what is the brown color due? Do the cells 
move? Are there any pyrenoids? Contrast the 
plant with Closterium. (f. 72, p, 140.) 

FAMILY ZYGXEMACEAE 

12. Spirogyra nltida: draw a cell from a vegetative 
filament showing the details of structure ; f ; from 
filaments in conjugation, draw three groups of 
conjugating cells, the first showing the conjugat- 
ing tubes forming and the plastids still intact, 
the second, the union of the conjugating tubes 
and the passage of the condensed protoplasm 
from one cell into the other, and the third the 
formation of the spore or zygote; J. 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 61 

How many chloroplasts in the vegetative cell? 
Where are the pjrenoids? Is a nucleus present? 
Discuss fully the details of conjugation as gath- 
ered from the different filaments. Does the 
zygote have a thick wall? What is the purpose 
of the zygote? Compare Spirogyra with Clos- 
terium. (f. 73, p. 142,) 

FAMILY MUCORACEAE 

13. Ascophora mucedo: examine without cover-glass 

under the low power a tuft of erect threads or 
hyphae bearing the black sporangia; draw such 
a tuft, and under the high powder a single stalk 
with its sporangium and spores ; 1. 
Why is the plant colorless? What effect has this 
habit had upon the cell partitions? How are the 
little tufts formed? How do the spores escape 
from the sporangium? Do you find any root-like 
structures? The reproduction is by conjugation ; 
it is, however, practically impossible to obtain it 
in the ordinary cultures, (fs. 74, p. 144; 75, p. 
145; 76, p. 146: XIV, 4.) 

ORDER SIPHONEAE 

FAMILY VAUCHEBIACEAE 

14. Yauclieria haniata: draw a portion of the main 
filament showing a lateral branch bearing 
oogones and antherids, also the zoosporangium 
if present ; 1. 

Is the main filament one-celled or many-celled? 
How is the zoospore formed? Describe the 
oogone and antherid in detail. Compare them 



62 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

with the reproductive cells in Spirogyra. Do you 
find any chloroplasts, pvrenoids, or nuclei? (f. 
78, p. 150; XII, XIII.) "^ 

FAMILY PEKOXOSPORACEAE 

15. Peronospora parasitica: mount some of the my- 

celium in weak alcohol and draw one of the 
branched stalks or conidiophores with its 
conidia ; macerate a x^ortion of the leaf and draw 
an oogone and antherid; 1. 

Compare Peronosj^ora with Vaucheria. Explain 
the reduction of the plant body. TMiy does the 
plant have conidia instead of zoogonids? In 
what ways does it resemble Ascophora? (f. SO, 
p. 153, f. 85, p. 155; XVI, 21.) 

ORDER CONFERYOIDEAE 

FAMILY ULOTKICHIACEAE 

16. Microspora ahhreviata: draw a filament showing 

the detail of the cells and the formation of 
gonidia ; 2. 

What are the chloroplasts like? How many in 
each cell? Do you find pyrenoids or a nucleus? 
How do the zoogonids arise? Do you find more 
than one kind? What is their function? What 
important differences between Microspora and 
Vaucheria? (f. 86 B, p. 157.) 

FAMILY OEDOGOJiTIACEAK 

17. Oedogonium nodulosum: draw a filament show- 
ing the oogones and the dwarf males which bear 
the antheridia; 1. 

Describe the oogones and dwarf males in detail. 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION G3 

In what respects do these organs differ from 
those of Vaucheria? What is the oospore? How 
does it arise? Why should there be several an- 
therids for each oogone? Describe the structure 
of the vegetative cell. (f. 87, p. 159; f. 88, p. 
160.) 

Class Phaeophyceae 

ORDER PHABOSPOREAB 

FAMILY ECTOCARPACEAE 

18. Ectocarpus litoralis : draw a portion of a filament 

showing the branching and two or three stages 
in the development of the plurilocular sporan- 
gium; draw also a row of unilocular sporangia; 
1. 

What is the color of the plant? What is it due 
to? Is chlorophyll present? Do you find 
pyrenoids or plastids? How do the plurilocular 
sporangia arise? The unilocular? How do their 
respective zoogonids differ? Compare Ectocar- 
pus with Microspora. 

ORDER FUCOIDEAE 

FAMILY FUCACEAE 

19. FuGus fastigiatus: mount a thin transverse sec- 

tion of the fruiting tip and draw one of the pit- 
like conceptacles, paying especial attention to 
oogones, antherids, and sterile hairs, the para- 
physes ; 1. 

How does the tissue of the tip differ from par- 
enchyma? Why should the fruiting organ be 



6i MANUAL OF BOTANY 

sunken in the tissue? What is the purpose of the 
paraphvses? Describe the antherids and 
oogones. Distinguish between isogametes and 
heterogametes. Illustrate, (f. 90, p. 164; f. 91, 
p. 165.) 

Class Rhodophyceae 
order florideae 

FAMTLT EHODOMELACEAE 

20. Poli/sipJwnia fastigmta: draw a portion of the 

main stem bearing a tetrasporic branch; also 
a branch showing antherids and one with a cysto- 
carp; 1. 

Compare tetraspores with macrozoogonidia. 
What important differences between the cysto- 
carp and the oogone. Describe the plant body. 
To what is its color due? Why is this plant 
higher than Oedogonium or Fucus? (f. 95, p. 
172.) 

Class Ascomycetes 

ORDER PERISPORIACEAE 

FAMILY ERYSIPHACEAE 

21. TJncinula salicis: scrape a number of the spore 
fruits from the leaf of the host and mount in 
weak alcohol ; draw a perithecium under the low 
power with especial attention to the appendages ; 
crush the perithecium and draw the cluster of 
spore sacs or asci, with their spores ; 1. 

What kind of a plant is this? How does it 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 65 

obtain its nourishment from the host? Do you 
find any vegetative filaments? Are there any 
differences between the perithecium, and the 
cystocarp of Polysiphonia? Upon what leaves 
do you find this fungus? Have you seen a similar 
fungus on any other plant? How can the spores 
escape from the perithecium? (f. 99, p. 176.) 

ORDER TUBERALES 

FAMILY TTJBERACEAE 

22. Tuber melanosporum : cut a thin section of the 
spore fruit and draw three or four asci in posi- 
tion among the sterile threads; 1. 

Describe the spore fruit? Where is it found? 

Are any vegetative filaments present? What 

evidences of relationship between this plant and 

Uncinula? How do the spores escape? (f. 102, 
p. 180.) 

ORDER PYRENOMYCETALES 

FAMILY HYSTERIACEAE 

23. HysterograpMum fraxini: cut a cross-section of 

the perithecium and make a diagrammatic draw- 
ing showing the position of the asci and paraphy- 
ses; also draw a single ascus with paraphyses 
and spores; 1. 

Describe the perithecium and its contents. How 
is this plant different from Uncinula? How do 
the spores escape? Where is the plant found? 
Is it a parasite or saprophyte? Why? (f. 104, 
p. 182.) 



66 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

ORDER DISCOMYCETALES 

FAMILY PEZIZACEAE 

24. Sepultaria scutellata: cut a cross-section of the 
spore fruit, the apothecium. and make a diagram- 
matic drawing showins: the position of asci and 
paraphTses; also draw one ascus with its spores 
and paraphyses; 1. 

Describe the structure of the apothecium. Con- 
trast this plant with Hvsterographium. Which 
do you think the higher? Why? How do the 
spores escape? How do thej differ from those of 
the preceding plant? Where is this plant found? 
Is it a parasite? Why? TMiat is the purpose of 
the spiny hairs on the outside? (fs. 106, 107, 
p. 185.) 

FAMILY PABMELIACFAE 

25. Physcia stellaris : cut a cross-section of the apothe- 
cium throtigh the disk or hymenium and the vege- 
tative body or thallus ; draw a segment extending 
from the hymenium through the thallus, paying 
especial attention to the asci and the Protococcus 
cells of the thallus; 1. 

Describe the apothecium and the thallus in de- 
tail. In what important respects does this plant 
differ from the preceding ascus-bearing plants? 
Is this union of Protococcus and fungus favor- 
able to the former? Why? Where is this plant 
found? How_ would you recognise a lichen? (f. 
110, p. 187.) 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 67 

ORDER UREDINALES 

FAMILY UREDINACEAE 

26. Puccinia pliragmitis: the first stage of this plant 

appears in May or June upon the leaves and leaf- 
stalks of the ash ; the spores formed in the yellow 
cluster-cups fall upon the leaves of the cord grass 
where they germinate, producing finally one- 
celled summer spores; later the same vegetative 
filaments produce black two-celled winter spores ; 
draw a group of summer spores and winter 
spores; 1. 

Why are the winter spores thick- walled? 
Where is the wall the thickest? Why? Explain 
the thin walls of the summer spores. Do you find 
any resemblance between the winter spore and an 
ascus with spores? (f. 113, p. 192.) 

ORDER USTILAGINALES 

FAMILY USTILAGINACEAE 

27. Ustilago maydis: this plant occurs in great masses 
of spores in swollen, "smutted" ears of corn, 
rarely, when the fungus is developing, in masses 
of filaments, which produce spores internally at 
the tips; draw a group of spores; 2. 

In what respects does this plant resemble 
Puccinia? (f. 115, p. 197.) 



€8 MAXTTAL OF BOTA>"T 



I^fcoper: :vfli: niake a dravii^ of fke 

puff-ten^ ivid^ :- riU^ tke i^ore fmit, and 
dianr also sane c:' -.l- ir^ads and spoies <tf the 



]Bii!nor;2. 

fe ft a s.it:: :i"-"t ' i 11" " 1-r , 



29- Agmriem.^ ;: i::£r ^ l::~":i^ :f :ir en 



■aw a 






;.-'> 



w? (tiis, I : 1 



CLi^^ CHAMQglffYClSAB 

WUellm opmem: dr:i~ . 7 : z : a pJant natural 
Hie, fliMmii^ lAe i 1 : : and liie nrandUn^; draw 
tte vpper part of 1 r^: ziTii^ Hie detail of the 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 69 

cells and the archegone and antherid; crush the 
latter and draw a cluster of the antherozoidal 
filaments; 1. 

Describe the vegetative body in detail. Compare 
the archegone with the carpogone of Polysipho- 
nia and the oogone of Oedogonium. Why is it 
higher? What is the structure of the antherid? 
Where do the stoneworts grow? (f. 120, p. 205: 
XXVII.) 

branch bryof»hyta.. 

Class Hepaticae 

ORDER MARCHANTIALES 

FAMILY MARCHANTIACEAE 

31. Marchantia polymorpha: draw a portion of the 
thallus, showing the brood cups and the taller 
antheridial and archegonial branches; cut a sec- 
tion through brood cup and thallus and draw in 
detail; make vertical sections of the antheridial 
and archegonial disks; note the structure and 
draw an antherid and an archegone; crush a 
mature spore-bearing plant or sporophyte and 
draw several spores and elaters; 1. 
Describe the structure of the thallus. Compare 
with it the wall of the brood-cup, and of the 
antheridial and archegonial disks. What does 
this show as to their origin? Contrast the 
stomata with those of flowering plants? What 
differences between the archegone and antherid 
of this plant and those of Nitella? What are the 



70 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

elaters for? Distinguish critically between the 
sexual plant or gametophyte and the spore-bear- 
ing plant or sporophjte. (f. 121, p. 208; f. 122, 
p. 209; f. 123, p. 210.) 

Class Muscineae 
order bryales 

FAMILY PHYSCOMITRIACEAE 

32. Funarla liygr^ometrica: draw a portion of the pro- 

tonema, or young thread-like condition of the 
moss, showing the brown root-like filaments and 
the chlorophyll-bearing ones; draw the leafy 
plant, or gametophyte, bearing the fruiting 
plant, or sporophyte; draw the cluster of an- 
therids and archegones, which usually occur sepa- 
rate at the tips of the gametophytes, along with 
the sterile threads or paraphyses; cut a longi- 
tudinal section of the capsule or sporophyte and 
draw the structure in detail. 
Contrast the gametophytes of Marchantia and 
Funaria. Contrast the sporophytes. What 
kinds of tissues in the moss? Where do the 
mosses grow? Why? (f. 125, p. 213; f. 126, p. 
211; f. 127, p. 216.) 

Class Equisetineae 
order equisetales 

FAMILY EQUISETACEAE 

33. Equisetum arvense: draw a gametophyte or pro- 

thallium, showing if possible the antherids and 
archegones ; make a drawing of the sterile and of 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 71 

the fertile sporophyte, paying especial attention 
to the cone of the latter; draw also a portion of 
the cross-section of the cone, showing the shields 
and sporangia, and a spore showing the elaters. 
Describe the gametophyte and sporophyte in de- 
tail and compare them with the same structures 
among the Bryophyta. Where are the horse-tails 
found? Which appears first, the sterile or the 
fertile sporophyte? Which lasts the longer? 
(fs. 136, 137, p. 228.) 

Class Filicineae 

ORDER FILICALES 

FAMILY POLYPODIACEAE 

34. Dryopteris marginata: carefully remove the earth 
from the lower side of a prothallium by thorough 
washing, and mount the latter lower side up; 
draw the prothallium with its rhizoids, antherids, 
archegones ; draw the leaf -like sporophyte, show- 
ing the fruit-dots or sori; draw a sporangium 
showing the spores. 

Compare the prothallium with that of Equisetum. 
Describe the sporophyte and compare it with the 
sporophyte of the Bryophyta. What tissues do 
you find in ferns? Are normal stomata present 
on the gametophyte? on the sporophyte? Where 
are ferns found for the most part? Which gen- 
eration is usually termed ''fern," the gametophyte 
or the sporophyte? (f. 128, p. 220; f. 129, 130, 
p. 221; f. 133, p. 224.) 



72 manual of botany 

Class Lycopodineae 

ORDER SELAGINELLALES 

FAMILY SELAGINELLACEAE 

35. Selaginella rupestris: draw a portion of the plant 

showing the fruiting cones; make a longitudinal 
section of the cone and draw it showing the 
sporophylls, microsporangia and macrosporan- 
gia. 

Compare the sporophyte with that of the fern. 
What striking differences? What do these mean? 
Is the gametophyte present? What important 
differences from that of the fern? What differ- 
ences in structure and function between the 
macrospores and microspores? Where does this 
plant grow? (f. 139, p. 233.) 

Class Gymnospermae 
order coniferae 

FAMILY PINACEAE 

36. Pinus austriaca: draw a cluster of the microspore 

cones (staminate cones), and draw from an axial 
longitudinal section of a cone, showing the 
microsporophylls, microsporangia, and the mi- 
crospores (pollen grains) ; draw also a micro- 
spore; draw a macrospore cone (pistillate) and 
part of a section of it, showing macrosporophyll, 
placental scale, and macrosporangium. During 
the last half of May, a section of the macrosporan- 
gium will usually show also the macrospore 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 73 

(embryo sac) which has already germinated to 
form a prothallium, which remains always en- 
closed within the spore ; at the tip of the prothal- 
lium (endosperm) may be found two or three 
elliptical hollows with necks, the archegones. 
Compare the pine tree, the sporophyte, with the 
sporophyte of Selaginella. What similarities 
and differences between the cones of the two 
plants? How does the prothallium of the pine 
differ from that of the fern? Contrast the rela- 
tive size and importance of the gametophyte and 
sporophyte of the pine with the relative size and 
importance of the gametophyte and sporophyte 
of the liverwort, Marchantia. (fs. 141, 142, p. 
240; f. 143, p. 241; f. 144, p. 243.) 

Class Angiospermae 
Subclass Monocotyledoneae 

ORDER CORONARIALES 

FAMILY LILIACEAE 

37. Erythronium alhidum (Leucocrinum montanum, 
Tulipa gesneriana) : make a sketch of the whole 
sporophyte; make an accurate drawing of the 
vertical section of the flower, showing the sterile 
sporophylls (petals and sepals), the microsporo- 
phylls (stamens) and the macrosporophylls 
(pistil) with the macrosporangia (ovules) in- 
closed; careful sections through the gynoecium 
will usually show the teguments of the macro- 
sporangium and often the macrospore with its 
prothallium. (f. 211, p. 312.) 



74 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Describe the flower in full with especial reference 
to the number and position of the flower parts 
and fix it in mind as the type of the lily-like 
flowers, 323. Contrast the sporophyte and game- 
tophyte with preceding ones. Where does this 
plant grow? Are there any indications of this 
in its structure? 

ORDER GLUMALES 

FAMILY GRAMINACEAE 

38. Poa pratensis: make a sketch of the whole sporo- 

phyte; make a careful sketch of the spikelet, 
showing the microsporophylls and of a single 
floret, showing the macrosporophyll. 
Contrast the floret with the flower of Erythro- 
nium, showing what modifications have occurred 
and what parts have been dropped out. In both 
the sedges and grasses, the petals and sepals are 
reduced to scales or bristles, or are lacking. The 
sedges, Cyperaceae, differ from the grasses in 
having the floret supported by a single scale in 
place of two. 

Subclass Dicotyledones 

ORDER THALAMIFLORALES 

Suborder Ranales 

family ranunculaceae 

39. Ranunculus ahortivus (Anemone caroliniana, 

Pulsatilla hirsutissima) : make a sketch of the 
sporophyte; make a drawing of the flower show- 
ing the arrangement of the parts. Cut a verti- 
cal section of the flower and note the position of 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 75 

the different parts with reference to the 
receptacle. 

What differences in the structure of the stem be- 
tween Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons? What 
difference in the plan of the flower? What feat- 
ures of this flower indicate its low position in the 
line of development? 

ORDER CALYCIFLORALES 

SUBORDEB ROSALES 
FAMILY KOSACEAE 

40. Primus americana: draw a cluster of the flowers, 

and also the vertical section of a single flower, 
with especial reference to the position of the 
stamens and the cavity of the macrosporophyll. 
Describe the flower structure in full and compare 
it with that of Ranunculus. Why is it higher or 
more advanced than Ranunculus? 

FAMILY PAPILIONACEAE 

41. Astragalus crassicarpus : draw a portion of the 

plant showing the leaves and flower cluster ; also 
a single flower in front and side view ; remove the 
petals, noting their position and shape and draw 
the column of microsporophylls and the tip of the 
macrosporophyll. What is the pod like? De- 
scribe the flower structure in full? How does it 
differ from that of Prunus? Distinguish an 
actinomorphic from a zygomorphic flower? 
Which is the higher structure? 



76 MANUAL OP BOTANY 

FAMILY SAXITBAGACEAE 

42. Rihes gracile (Ribes aureum) : draw a flower 

cluster with leaves; also a single flower and a 
cross-section showing the structure of the 
macrosporophyll. 

Describe the flower and compare it with Astrag- 
alus and Prunus? Why is it higher? 

ORDER BICARPELLALES 

Suborder Polemoniales 

family boraginaceae 

43. Lithospermum angustifolium ( Lithospermum 

hirtum) : make a careful sketch of the sporo- 
phyte; draw a single flower showing the calyx 
and corolla and also a vertical section with es- 
pecial reference to the micro- and macrosporo- 
phylls. 

Describe the flower structure in full and compare 
it with that of Ranunculus. 

ORDER INFERALES 
Suborder Rubiales 

FAMILY BUBIACEAE 

44. Galium aparine: make a sketch of the sporophyte; 
draw a single flower and also a fruit, the latter 
in cross-section. 

Describe the structure of the flower and com- 
pare it with that of Ribes. 

Suborder Asteralus 

FAMILY COMPOSITAE 

45. Senecio plattensis: sketch the sporophyte and 
draw a single flower cluster or head enlarged two 



STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 77 

or three times ; draw both a disk and a ray floret 
enlarged several times. 

Describe the structure of the head and of both 
sorts of florets. Compare the latter with the 
flowers of Galium. What has become of the 
calyx? What is the purpose of the pappus? 
46. Taraxacum taraxacum (Nothocalais cuspidata) : 
draw a head in front view and also in vertical 
section ; draw a floret from the edge and from the 
center of the disk. 

Compare the structure of the head with that of 
Senecio. Compare the florets of both also. Con- 
trast in detail Ranunculus with Taraxacum in 
regard to flower structure. Point out all the 
particulars in which the latter is the higher. 



PHYTOGEOGRAPHY 

Select a readily accessible portion of the vicinitT, 
which manifests a large degree of diversitT in the 
yegetative covering. Draw a map of this area on the 
scale of ten inches to the mile, showing section lines, 
roads, streams, ponds, swamps, hills, etc. Indicate 
provisionallT the areas covered by the different sorts 
of vegetation, woodland, meadow, swamp, pond, weed 
patches, cultivated fields, groves, orchards, etc. 

Identify the flowers in each formation as they ap- 
pear in the spring. Where there is not sufficient 
time to work them all, determine the most important 
or abundant. It will soon be seen that, while trees 
are the characteristic plants of woodlands, grasses of 
meadows and prairies, etc., other plants are especially 
typical of such formations on account of their abund- 
ance or prominence. These are the principal species 
of the formation, while the less abundant or less 
important ones are secondary species. Determine for 
those formations which are early enough the funda- 
mental species or facies, the principal species, and as 
many of the secondary species as possible. List the 
species of each formation, arranging the facies, prin- 
cipal species, etc., according to the time of their 
flowering. (Chapter V. Phytogeography of 
Nebraska. ) 

Determine which areas of the localitv studied are 



PHYTOGEOGRAPHY 79 

hjdrophjtic, which mesophytic, and which xero- 
phjtic. Point out which physical factors are at work 
in all of them, influencing the vegetation which grows 
there, and in what way certain of these factors differ 
in the different situations. Note what structural 
modifications are common to each group, and try to 
connect these with the physical conditions peculiar to 
the situation. Note that the mesophytes may be 
woodland plants, grassland plants, or weeds. Make 
a list of hydrophytes, hylophytes, poophytes, cledo- 
phytes, and xerophytes, arranging them in so far 
as possible according to the degree to which they have 
become modified in response to the controlling con- 
ditions in their environment. ( Chapter IV. ) 

Arrange the species of each formation according 
to their vegetation form, and point out the connection 
between the typical structure, which determines the 
vegetation form, and the habitat. (Chapter III.) 

Indicate upon the topographical map the various 
plant formations of the vegetative covering either by 
shading with conventional signs or, better, by colors. 
Transition areas in which two formations mingle 
may be indicated by mingling both signs, or by using 
a shade intermediate between the two colors. A neat 
legend should be attached, giving the name and facies 
of each formation opposite its sign or color. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE LAEGER GROUPS OF THE 
VEGETABLE KINGDOM 

Branch I. — Protophyta. Protopliytes 

Water Slimes 
Class. — Schizophyceae. Fission Algae 

Order. — Cystiphoreae. 

Fam. — Chroococcoceae. Gloeocapsa arenaria. 

Order. — Nematogeneae. 

Fam. — Nostocaceae. Nostoc commune. 
Fam. — Oscillatoriaceae. Oscillatoria tenuis. 
Fam. — Scytonemataceae. Scytonema cinereum. 
Fam. — Rivulariaceae. Gloeotrichia pisum. 
Fam. — Bacteriaceae. Bacillus subtilis. Spiril- 
lum undula. 

Branch II. — Phycophyta. Phycophytes 
Spore Tangles 

Class. — Chlorophyceae. Green Algae 

Order. — Protococcoideae. 

Fam. — Pleurococcaceae. Protococcus viridis, 
Scenedesmus obliquus. 

Order. — Conjugatae. 

Fam. — Desmidiaceae. Closterium lanceolatum. 
Fam. — Bacillariaceae. Navicula viridis. 
Fam. — Zygnemaceae. Spirogyra nitida. 
Fam, — Mucoraceae. Ascophora mucedo. 



SYNOPSIS 81 

Order. — Siphoneae. 

Fam. — Vaucheriaceae. Vaucheria hamata. 
Fam. — Peronosporaceae. Peronospora parasit- 
ica. 

Order. — Confervoideae. 

Fam, — Ulotrichiaceae. Microspora abbreviata. 
Fam. — Oedogoniaceae. Oedogonium nodulosum. 

Class. — Phaeophyceae. Brown Algae 

Order. — Phaeosporeae. 

Fam. — Ectocarpaceae. Ectocarpus litoralis. 

Order. — Fucoideae. 

Fam. — Fucaceae. Fucus fastigiatus. 

Branch III. — Carpophyta. Carpophytes 
Fruit Tangles 

Class. — Rhodophyceae. Red Seaweeds 
Order — Florideae. 

Fam. — Rhodomelaceae. Polysiphonia fastigiata. 

Class. — Ascomycetes. Sac-Fungi 

Order. — Perisporiaceae. Simple Sac-Fungi. 
Fam. — Erysipheae. Uncinula salicis. 

Ord er. — Tuberales. 

Fam. — Tuberaceae. Tuber melanosporum. 

Order. — Pyrenomycetales. Black Fungi. 

Fam. — Hysteriaceae. Hysterographium fraxini. 

Order. — Discomycetales. Cup Fungi. 

Fam. — Pezizaceae. Sepultaria scutellata. 
Fam. — Parmeliaceae. Pliyscia stellaris. 



82 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Order. — Uredinales. Busts. 

Fam. — Uredinaceae. Puccinia phragmitis. 

Order. — Ustilaginales. Smuts. 

Fam. — Ustilaginaceae. Ustilago maydis. 

Class. — Basidiomycetaceae. Higher Fungi 

Order. — Gasteromycetales. Puff-balls, etc. 

Fam. — Lycoperdaceae. Lycoperdon gemmatum. 

Order. — Hymenomycetales. Toadstools, etc. 
Fam. — Agaricaceae. Agaricus campestris. 

Class. — Charophyceae. Stoneworts 

Order. — Charales. 

Fam. — Characeae. Nitella opaca. 

Branch IV. — Bryophyta. Bryophytes 
Mossworts 

Class. — Hepaticae. Liverworts 

Order. — Marchantiales. 

Fam. — Marchantiaceae. Marchantia polymor- 
pha. 

Class. — Muscineae. Mosses 

Order. — Bryales. 

Fam. — Physcomitriaceae. Funaria hygromet- 
rica. 

Branch V. — Pteridophyta. Pteridophytes 
Fernworts 

Class. — Equisetineae. Joint Rushes 



SYNOPSIS 83 

Order. — Equisetales. 

Fam. — Equisetaceae. Equisetum arvense. 

Class, — Pilicineae. Ferns 

Order. — Filicales. True Ferns. 

Fam. — Polypodiaceae. Dryopteris marginata. 

Class. — Lycopodineae. Lycopods 

Order. — Selaginellales. Little Olub-mosses. 

Fam. — Selaginellaceae. Selaginella rupestris. 

Branch VI. — Anthophyta. Anthophytes 
Flowering Plants 

Class. — Gymnospermae. Gymnosperms 

Order. — Coniferae. Conifers. 

Fam. — Pinaceae. Pinus austriaca. 

Class. — Angiospermae. Angiosperms 

Subclass. — Monocotyledones. Monocotyledons 

Order. — Coronariales. Lilies. 

Fam. — Liliaceae. Erythronium albidum. 

Order. — Glumales. Grasses. 

Fam. — Graminaceae. Poa pratensis. 

Subclass. — Dicotyledones. Dicotyledons 

Order. — Thalamiflorales. Torals. 
Sub-order. — Ranales. 
Fam. — Ranunculaceae. Ranunculus abortivus. 

Order. — Calyciflorales. Calycals. 
Sub-order. — Rosales. 
Fam. — Rosaceae. Prunus americana. 



84 MANUAL OF BOTAXY 

Fain. — Papilionaceae. Astragalus crassicarpui. 
Fajn. — Saxifragaceae. Kibes gracile. 

Order. — Bicarpellales. 
Sub-order. — Polemoniales. 
Fam. — Boraginaceae. Lithospermnin angnsti- 
folium. 

Order. — Inferales. 
Sub-order. — Rubiales. 

Fam. — Rubiaceae. Gralinm aparine. 
Sub-order. — Asterales. 
Fam. — Compositae. — Senecio plattensis. Tarax- 
acum taraxacum. 



PHYSIOLOGY 

Experiment 1 

Germinate several seeds — corn, beans, peas — by 
placing same between folds of moist blotting paper. 
Or, place the seeds on cotton screen cloth, covering the 
top of a wide-mouthed bottle. This will allow the 
water in the bottle to just come into contact with 
seeds. The whole may be covered with a bell jar or 
left exposed to ordinary air of a room. Temperature 
21° to 23° C. The apparatus thus described may be 
called the germinator. 

Experiment 2 

Prepare the following — Nutrient Solution or Cul- 
ture Solution : 

Distilled water (H2O) 1000 cc. 

Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 1 gram 

Magnesium sulphate (MgSOi) 0.5 gram 

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 0.5 gram 

Calcium phosphate Cas (P04)2 0.5 gram 

Add to this a trace of some iron salt, Fe 2 CI e 
(Ferric chlorid) or FeSO* (Ferrous sulphate). 
Keep solution in dark. Aerate occasionally during 
culture experiment. 



86 M-^XrAL OF BOTAXY 

ExPERi:y:£XT 3 

Fill ber^.ker or jar with nufrltnf so^-.-.'^ion. Cover 
with cork or pasteboard which has been slit: through 
opening pass roots, or slip of some plant. Arrange 
another beaker or jar similarly, except nil with dis- 
t"-:' irrttr instead of nutrient solution. Observe 
gi"': ".'tbi of two slips or plants from day to day. 

Experiment vMh seedlings — Are results simUar? 

EXPEEIMENT 4 

Grow sets of sec'dlings under the four following 
conditions : 

(a) Distnied water. 

(h) Nutrient soiution 'without iron't. 

(c) Nutrient solution i with iron). 

(dj In soil. 

Compare results. Do not repeat (a) and (c) if 
previ^iusly performed. 

ExPEEiMEXT 5. — AesC'?.?t::x of Mineeal5 Which 

AEE IXSuLUELE IX H:0 

(a) Take seedlings grc'wn in germinator and touch 
the moist root-tips to blue litmtis paper. 

The paper becomes red in color showing presence 
of acids in the rO':'t-rip. 

I'l..^ u;. ' ■ b 'i.'i::b:c certain constituents of soil 
vhich are : : ; ' .liJe in H-i 0. 

fhj Grow a seedling in soil previously placed on a 
polished lit o' ■'-C-'ble. After a few weeks wash off 
and examine for "root tracks." Acid of roots will 
have eaten line tracks into surface of marble. 



physiology 87 

Experiment 6. — Absorption 

Place leaves of different varieties, in 5 per cent solu- 
tion of common salt. The entire blade should be im- 
mersed, but the petioles should project out of the 
solution. Arrange two sets of leaves; one in salt 
solution, the other in pure water. After several hours 
examine. Which are normal and which have lost 
their turgidity? 

Experiment 7 

Cut several pieces of beet of equal size and about 
5 mm. in thickness. Immerse a few slices each, in 
water, in salt solution, and in sugar solution. At 
first slices will be rigid. After one or two hours ex- 
amine slices. Notice difference in rigidity. Why 
is this? Which solution has the greatest softening 
effect? Explain. Wash the slices in salt solution 
and place in dish of pure water. Examine after a few 
hours. What effect? Explain. 

Experiment 8 

To some cells of Spirogyra under microscope add a 
little KOH (Potassium hydrate) . Potassium hydrate 
induces in the cell the power of imbibing water to 
greater extent than ordinarily. 

Try same with H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid). Note 
results. 

Try same with 5 per cent solution of common salt 
(NaCl). After 5 minutes, flow pure water under the 
cover glass and again notice effect. 



88 manual of botany 

Experiment 9. — Water from Soil 

Examine under loio power of microscope some fine 
root hairs of corn seedlings grown in earth. Fine 
particles of earth will be seen clinging to root hairs. 
Plants take water from soil which is merely moist. 

Experiment 10. — The Ascending Current 

Evaporate on a cover glass, a little H2O obtained 
by cutting stem of some herbaceous plant. Is the 
H2O pure? Heat the residue. Does it carbonize? 
What does this indicate about the so-called sap? 

Experiment 11 

Determine percentage of water in grass, clover, etc. 
Weigh accurately a small bunch of grass — about a 
handful. Dry for twenty-four hours in drying oven. 
Reweigh and determine actual loss of weight. Per- 
centage of loss? 

Experiment 12 

Cut near the ground a stem of sunflower, dahlia, 
Indian corn, or any strongly growing herbaceous 
plant. Dry cut end with blotting paper and then ex- 
amine with hand lens. Where do you notice H2O? Is 
it exuding from cut ends of fibrovascular bundles? 
How much water would escape in this way in one 
day? Estimate. 

Look up fibrovascular bundles in Bessey or Bergen. 

Experiment 13 

Place the freshly cut ends of sunflower shoots, corn 
stems, Impatiens or Caladium in a solution of eosin. 



PHYSIOLOGY 89 

fuchsin, or red ink. After a few hours make cross- 
sections of the various stems and examine for the red 
areas. How are they arranged? Cut longitudinally 
through one of these areas. Try various kinds of 
stems. Examine a cross-section of one of the stems 
with the microscope, low power. Are the red areas 
of especially constructed cells? What are the fibro- 
vascular bundles? 

Experiment 14 

(To be performed in spring or fall when leafy twigs 
or branches are abundant). 

Take a branch of woody plant — remove bark en- 
tirely from stem for J-inch. Place in H 2 O and notice 
leaves both above and below the injury. Is there a 
perceptible difference in freshness? 

With another twig remove ^-inch of wood without 
injuring bark more than necessary. Compare leaves 
above and below the injury when the twig is placed in 
H2O. 

Experiment 15. — Transpiration 

Study morphology of Stomata on leaves. Can you 
conclude that leaves are special organs of 
transpiration? 

Exp. Weigh a plant. Then allow a period of rapid 
evaporation from leaves (covering mouth of pot with 
sheet rubber). Keweigh after the period and note 
difference. 



90 



MANUAL OF BOTANY 



Experiment 16 

Fit the stem of a growing shoot into end of glass 
tube by means of a cork. Fill tube with H2 O and 
place bottom end in beaker of colored water or mer- 
cury. The transpiring shoot produces what results? 

Experiment 17 

Take two geranium leaves, varnish one on both 
sides. Place side by side on table in laboratory. 
What effect? Which wilts? What have you pre- 
served by varnishing the one leaf? 

Experiment 18 

Fit a growing shoot through a cork into one arm 
of a U tube. Fill tube with water. From the other 
arm of the tube lead out a J-inch glass tube hori- 
zontally. This should contain water, and its flow 
towards the arm can be noted as indicative of amount 
of transpiration. 

Cf. MacDougal's "Plant Physiology," p. 23. 




Fig. 20. 
b 



Apparatus for estimation of trans- 
piration. (Mangin.) The water 
recedes from a toward d» ^ 



PHYSIOLOGY 



91 



Experiment 19. — Living Plants able to Control 

Transpiration 

Take two sprigs of clover, immerse one in boiling 
water to kill it, and immerse the other in cold water 
so that the leaves are well wetted. Lay both plants 
on table and notice results in drying. Which is sur- 
face-dry the sooner? Which entirely dry? Did living 
plant hold moisture longer than dead plant? 

Experiment 20 

Fit a growing shoot into a 
cork, which when placed in 
one end of a "U" tube will 
render the whole water-tight. 
Fill this end of the tube with 
water; insert the cork. Pour 
mercury into other arm of tube 
until it stands one inch high in 
both arms. After a time the 
mercury will rise in the first 
arm. Why? Does this indicate 
lifting power? 

Experiment 21 

Take several leaves, geranium 
Lifting power aftranspira- and Others, and place their 

tictt. (After Oels.) a, petioles in long pill bottles con- 
water; t» mercury. ^ ° ^ 

taining H2 O, closing the mouth 
of the bottle with softened wax or paraffin. Notice 
level of water in bottles after 12 hours ; after 24 hours, 
etc. Weigh these bottles at intervals of 6 hours. 
Record results. Conclusions? 




92 



MANUAL OF BOTANY 




Experiment 22. — Metabolism 

Cover some water plants or green 
algae, in a glass jar, with a funnel 
filled with water. Invert a test 
tube filled with H2O over this 
funnel, so that mouth of tube is be- 
neath surface of water in jar. 
Bubbles rising from growing plants 
will collect in tube displacing H3O. 
What are they? When tube is 
filled, place thumb over the open- 
ing and remove. Insert a lighted 
taper. Conclusions? Note reac- 
tion given with Experiment 25. 

Experiment 23 

Take a handful of peas and 
soak in warm water for 12 
hours or in cold water for 24 
hours. Drain off water and 
place peas in tall glass cylin- 
der. Cover the top as nearly 
air tight as possible and set 
aside for 12 hours. Now re- 
move the cover slightly and 
lower lighted taper into jar. 
If it is extinguished, it indi- 
cates a lack of oxygen. Lower 
spoonful of lime water. If the 
surface becomes covered with 

J, . . J. J. V Cylinder containing germi- 

a film this indicates carbon nating Peas. (Sachs.) 




PHYSIOLOGY 93 

dioxid (CO2). Your conclusions? Peas in germi- 
nation absorb what? Give off what? 

Experiment 24 

Parasitic plants (fungi) have no chlorophyll. 
They do not make their own starch, nor assimilate 
CO 3. Examine under microscope the Dodder, for 
chlorophyll grains. Examine in like manner various 
fungi, as molds. Examine green leaves, under micro- 
scope, for chlorophyll. 

Experiment 25. — Assimilation 

Burn a match. What is the resulting charred 
stick? Whence do plants derive this carbon? Is 
carbon present in air? In what form? Note care- 
fully 6C02+5H20=C6HioOH-602. 

Starch 

Experiment 26. — Schimper^s Method of testing 
FOR Presence of Starch 

A strong solution of chloral hydrate is made by 
taking 8 grams of chloral hydrate for every 5 cc. of 
water. To this solution is added a little of an alco- 
holic tincture of iodin. 

Threads of Spirogyra may be placed in this solution 
and in few minutes examined under microscope. 
The reaction will be distinctly seen. 



94 



MANUAL OF BOTANY 





«, Tropatolum leaf to which are attached two pieces of cork to prevent pho- 
tosynthesis. (Detmer.) ^, same after removal of cork, treated with 
JodiiD 

Experiment 27 

Cover a portion of a growing leaf with cork, as per 
figure. After some days, pluck leaf, remove cork, and 
immerse leaf in solution of iodin. What color is the 
strip covered by cork — before and after immersion. 
A blue color would indicate starch. Explain results. 

Experiment 28 

To two ounces of ground flaxseed add about 2 ozs. 
of ether. Allow to stand for 15 or 20 minutes and 
then allow ether to evaporate in draught. What re- 
mains? Where did it come from? Is starch the only 
product of plant activity? Name other products? 



PHYSIOLOGY 



95 



Experiment 29. — Heat in Germination 

Fill a beaker i full with 
strong solution of KOH 
(Potassium hydrate). 
Into this place a funnel 
filled with soaked peas, 
taking care that the funnel 
does not come into contact 
with solution of KOH. A 
thermometer is inserted 
into the mass of peas, the 
whole covered by bell jar. 
The KOH is used to ab- 
sorb what gas given off in 
Apparatus to demonstrate liber- germination ? Compare 

ation of heat in respiration. ^ ^ 

^spchsj temperature as indicated 

by thermometer in peas with temperature of outside 
air. 

Experiment 30 

Place dry beans or peas in a temperature of about 
70 ° C. for 15 minutes. They will not be killed. Now 
thoroughly soak a few beans, and subject them to the 
same temperature for about the same length of time. 
Attempt to grow them after removal from oven. Will 
they grow? Conclusions. 




96 



MANUAL OF BOTANY 



Experiment 31. — Growth — To Mark Radicles 

With Ink 

Mount a few inches of fine thread in a 
needle holder. Allow insoluble India ink 
to soak into thread which has been 
stretched. By holding this inked thread 
taut and pressing down on the roots, a 
fine, even line may be obtained. 




Experiment 32 

Germinate a bean, and 
when root-tip is about one 
inch in length, mark with 
India ink on the tip ten 
millimeter divisions. Al- 
low seedling to remain in 
culture 24 hours. Then 
re-examine. Notice posi- 
tion of millimeter marks. 
Transfer results accurately 
to plotting paper. Scale 
1-5. Notice carefully in- 
crease in each zone. Try 
with various seedlings. 




Seedling' of Pea. (Sachs.) 
Showing zone of maximum 
growth. 



PHYSIOLOGY 



97 



Experiment 33. — To Measure Growth in Length 

OF Plant 

Auxanometer. — The thread fastened to top of plant 
to be observed is passed over a movable pulley, and 
held taut by a weight, which should not be so heavy 
as to strain the plant. To pulley is attached a slender 
pointer which is 20 times as long as the radius of the 
pulley, indicating growth 20 fold. Arrange so that 
pointer may indicate on a scale or that pointer may 
touch a clean sheet of paper which may be marked. 
Measure growth of potato plant or lily grown in a 
pot or box. Compare day growth with night growth. 




Lever auxanometer. 
(After Oels.) Z, lever; 
^, balance-weight on lev- 
er; G, counterpoise to 
keep the string taut; f, 
string. 



98 manual of botany 

Experiment 34 

Fix pots containing growing shoots in unusual 
positions about the room. Observe carefully any 
change of direction taken by the growing parts of the 
plant. 

Experiment 35 

Sprout a lima bean and allow to grow in one posi- 
tion until lateral roots are 15 to 20 cm. in length. 
Now invert, and allow to remain for 24 hours, or 
longer. Return to normal position and notice effect 
a day after the inversion. Draw the curve of the 
rootlets. 

Experiment 36 

Arrange some bean seedlings around a disc of cork 
which can be rapidly rotated. Notice after a few 
hours the effect of centrifugal force upon rootlets. 
Has the centrifugal force overcome that of gravity? 
What is geotropism? 

Experiment 37. — Irritability — Contact^ Light^ 

etc. 

Obtain a cracker box and give the inside, including 
inside of cover, a coat of black paint. Nail cleats 
across boards of cover that it may be removed easily. 
Now cut an opening 3 inches in diameter in one end 
and attach a cylinder about 6 inches in length. When 
completed the affair will resemble a camera box. 
When cover is on, the cylinder opening should be the 
only place where light may enter. 

Experiment with various plants, allowing them 



PHYSIOLOGY 99 

to remain in the box various lengths of time. Two 
days on the average is a good length of time. Note 
the tendency of the growing shoots to seek the light. 
Arrange a set of "stops" for the opening of the box, 
and experiment with reduced light. Do the growing 
plants bend toward the light? 

Experiment 38 

Grow a "nasturtium" (Tropaeolum) in a window. 
Note the positions taken by the leaves with respect to 
the light. 

Experiment 39 

All laboratories should have a sensitive plant. 
Mimosa pudica may be obtained from a florist. 

Cause temperature to rise around the plant. 
Notice loss of irritability. Cause temperature to 
fall. What result? 

Allow plant to dry. What result? Add water. 
What result? Note carefully irritability due to 
contact. 



LofC. 



ABSORPTION, TRANSFER, AND NUTRITION IN THE PLANT. 




iVitrates 

Sulphites 

p^,os|l^>«■teS 



APPENDIX 

REMARKS 

1. Give the experiments which require much prepa- 
ration to various pupils at the beginning of the course. 

2. An effort has been put forth to make the glossary 
very complete. Refer constantly to this, and thus be- 
come familiar with terms employed. 

3. In the part of the Manual devoted to physiology, 
use especially MacDougal, Bessey, and Bergen for 
reference. 

4. It is urged upon the smaller high schools of the 
state that a beginning in laboratory botany is most 
essential, no matter how insignificant that beginning 
may be. The course outlined in the Manual is com- 
plete enough for the best equipped school in the state, 
and it is not intended that the high school carrying a 
light equipment shall attempt the complete course. 

5. It is further urged that the laboratory "quiz'' 
method of instruction be largely employed. Let the 
teacher, instead of "lecturing" two or three times per 
week, go into the laboratory, and there "quiz" the 
pupils upon work actually in hand, at the same time 
bringing out related matters from the text book lesson. 
Converse freely with the students about the experi- 
ments or class work. 

6. Attention is called to the outline of the vegetable 
kingdom — prepared by Dr. Bessey. 

7. Correspondence regarding the needs of your 
course in Botany is invited by the Department of 
Botany, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Upon 
request doubtful plants will be named or verified. 



GLOSSARY 

Abbreviata: L. abbreviatus, shortened. 

Abortivus: L. abortivus, abortive. 

Abundance: the quantity of a species measured by the numbei 

of individuals, 
-aceae: u. -aceus, pertaining to. 
Actinomorphic: Gr. dxTt?, aktis, aKTtvos, aktlios, ray; fiop<l>i], 

morphe, form, radially symmetrical, as the flower of the rose. 
Adventitious: L. adventitius, strange, belonging to a remote 

vegetation, foreign. 
Agaricaceae: L. agaricus, mushroom. 

Agave: Gr. dyav6<s, agauos, noble, a genus of the Amaryllis family, 
Aianthous: Gr. alcov, aion, age, avOos, anthos, flower, continuing 

in bloom throughout the season. 
Albidum: L. albidus, white, 
-ales: L. alls, pertaining to. 

Aleurone: Gr. dXevpov, aleuron, fine meal, fine granules of al- 
buminoid or proteid found in seeds. 
Algae: L. alga, seaweed, the term applied to the green aquatic 

forms of the first three branches. 
Allogamy: Gr. aAAos, alios, another, ya/xo?, gamos, marriage, the 

fertilization of the pistil of one flower by the pollen or 

microspores of another; cross-fertilization. 
Americana: L. americanus, American. 
Androecium: Gr. av^p, aner, dvSpo's, andros, man, otKtbv, oikion, 

house, the microsporophylls or stamens taken collectively. 
Anemone: Gr. ave/xo?, anemos, wind. 

Angiospermae: Gr. ayyiov, angion, vessel, (nripfia, sperma, seed. 
Angustifoiium: L. angustus, narrow, folium, leaf. 
Antherid: Gr. dvOepiBLov, antheridion, blooming, the male organ, 

from Phycophyta to Pteridophyta, producing the anthero- 

zoids. 



GLOSSARY 103 

Anthcrozoid: Gr. avOos, anthos, flower, ^oiov zoon, animal, 
ctSos, eidos, shape, the fertilizing body produced in the 
antherid. 

Apical cell: the tip cell of a filament or tissue, by the division of 
which growth is effected. 

Apothecium: Gr. diro, apo, away, OrJKrj, theke, case, box, the disk 
or cup-like spore-fruit of cup-fungi and lichens in which the 
hymenium is exposed. 

Appendage: the filament developed as a holdfast upon the peri- 
thecium of the Erysiphaceae. 

Aquiiina: L. aquilinus, pertaining to an eagle or standard. 

Archegone: Gr. apx^, arche, first, yoviov, gonion, offspring, the 
female reproductive organ of ferns and flowering plants. 

Arenaria: L. arenarius, sandy. 

Areole: L. dim. of area, ground, a small clear space, around the 
nucleolus. 

Asclepias: Gr. A(r>cA.7y7rio5, Asklepios, the Greek god of medicine, 
a genus of the Asclepiadaceae. 

Ascomycetales : Gr. a(TK6<s, askos, sack, /xvKr]<;, mykes, mushroom. 

Ascophora: Gr. do-Kos, askos, sack, <f>opd, phora, bear. 

Ascus: Gr. da-K6<s, askos, sack, the spore sack of the Ascomycetes. 

Aspect: the tone or appearance of a formation during a particular 
period. 

Asterales: Gr. do-xTf/), aster, a star. 

Astragalus : Gr. daTrjp, aster, a star, ydXa, gala, milk. 

Aureum: L. aureus, golden. 

Austriaca: L. austriacus, southern. 

Autogamy: Gr. avros, autos, self, yd/Ao?, gamos, marriage, ferti- 
lization of a pistil by pollen of the same flower; self-fertiliza- 
tion. 

Bacillaria: L. baculus, rod. 

Bacillus: L. baculus, rod. 

Bacterium: Gr. paKTtjpLov, bakterion, staff, a one-celled Proto- 
phyte, either parasitic or saprcphytic. 

Balsamina: L. balsaminus, balsamic. 

Basidiomycetes: Gr. jSaa-tSiov, basidion, pedicel, ixvktjs, mykes, 
mushroom. 



104 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Basidium: Gr. ^ao-i'Stov, basidion, a little base, the swollen tip 
of a filament upon which the spores are borne in the puff-bails 
and mushrooms. 

Bast fibre; a long, thick-walled, usually lignified fiber, belonging 
to the sieve portion of the fibrovascular bundle. 

Begonia: named for Begon, an early governor of St. Domingo, 
a genus of Begoniaceae. 

Bergamot: (name of Italian town, Bergamo), the oil of the 
bergamot orange (Citrus medica). 

Beta: L. beta, beet, a genus of Chenopodiaceae. 

Bilateral: L. hi, two, latus, side, two-sided, in two directions. 

Bicarpellales: L. bi, two, carpus, fruit. 

Boraginaceae: ancient Latin name. 

Branch: a primary group of the vegetable kingdom, as Proto- 
phyta. 

Breathing pores: the openings through the epidermis into the 
soft tissue, by which gases are absorbed and given off. 

Bristle: a stiff hair, especially those of the sedge flower. 

Brood cups: the structures produced upon the thallus of liver- 
worts, bearing buds or gemmae. 

Bryophyta : Gr. ^pvov, bryon, moss, cf)vr6v, phyton, plant. 

Bryum: Gr. /Spvov, bryon, moss. 

Bundle: a union of sieve and tracheary tissues to form supportive 
fibres or columns. 

Callose: L. caliosus, hard, a substance resembling cellulose, oc- 
curring upon the sieve plates during the resting period. 

Calyciflorales : Gr. koXv^, kalyx, cup, L. flos, flower. 

Calyx: Gr. KaXv|, kalyx, cup of a flower, the outer row of sterile 
sporophylls, called sepals. 

Cambium: L.L. cambium, exchange, the zone of meristematic 
tissue which causes the growth in thickness of stems and 
roots. 

Campestris: L. campestris, of the field. 

Canadensis: L. canadensis, Canadian. 

Capsule: L. capsula, from Gr. Kaij/a, kapsa, chest, the spore-bear- 
ing structure of mosses; also the pod of certain flowering 
plants, lily, etc. 



GLOSSARY 105 

Carpogone: Gr. Aca/DTro?, karpos, fruit, yovtov, gonion, offspring, 

tiie female reproductive organ of the red seaweeds, etc. 
Carpophyta: Gr: Kapvos, karpos, fruit, <f)VT6v, phyton, plant. 
Cell: L. cella, cell, the plant unit, consisting usually of a wall, 

protoplasm and nucleus. 
Cellulose: L. cellula, little cell, the substance resembling starch, 

making up the walls of the cells of soft tissue. 
Centrifugal: L. centrum, center, fugere, to flee from. 
Centrifugal force: that force by which a body in revolution or 

rotation tends to fly off from the center. 
Cerevisiae: L. cerevisia, beer, belonging to beer. 
Chara: Gr. x^P^» chara, joy. 

Charophyceae: Gr. x^P^f chara, joy, <f>vKO<i, phykos, seaweed. 
Chlorophyceae: Gr. ^^Xwpos, chloros, green, <j>vKo<i, phykos, sea- 
weed. 
Chlorophyll: Gr. )(Xoip6<;, chloros, grass-green, <fiv\\ov, phyllon, 

leaf, the yellow green coloring matter of plants, especially of 

leaves. 
Chloroplast: Gr. -^Xoipos, chloros, green, TrXao-ros, plastos, formed, 

a bit of protoplasm stained green with chlorophyll. 
Chromatophore: Gr. ^pw/xa, chroma, color, <f>opd, phora, bearing, 

a definite mass of protoplasm producing a pigment. 
Chromoplast: Gr. XP^l^^ chroma, color, TrXacrTos, plastos, formed, 

a bit of protoplasm colored by a red or yellow pigment. 
Chroococcaceae: Gr. xp<^5, chroos, color, kokko?, kokkos, berry. 
Cinereum: L. cinereus, ashy, gray. 
Class: a group of plants next below a branch in rank, as 

Schizophyceae. 
Closed bundle: a collateral bundle having no cambium and hence 

incapable of further growth, as in corn. 
Closterium: Gr. KXtaa-nqpLov, klosterion, small thread or line. 
Cluster cup: a cup-like structure in which the spring spores or 

aecidiospores of the rusts are produced. 
Collateral bundle: the kind of flbrovascular bundle in which the 

xylem and phloem are side by side, the former inside, the 

latter outside. 



106 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Collfnchyma : Gr. KoAAa, koUa, glue, Iv, en, in, x^fio^, chymoa, 
juice, soft tissue in whicn the cells are usually elongated and 
reinforced by cellulose thickenings at the corners. 

Colony: L. colonia, colony, a more or less definite group of one- 
celled plants. 

Communis: L. communis, common. 

Companion cell: an elongated cell associated with a sieve tube. 

Compositae: L. compositus, compound. 

Concentric: having a common center. 

Conceptacle: L. conceptaculum, the pitlike cavity of certain 
brown seaweeds in which the sexual organs are formed. 

Conductive: permitting or aiding the migration of plants. 

Cone: an elongated axis bearing rows of microsporophylls or 
macrosporophylls, as in the pines. 

Conferva: L. river sponge. 

Conidia: Gr. xovi?, konis, dust, the propagative bodies in fungi, 
borne on special staiks or conidiophores. 

Conidiophore : Gr. kovlBiov^ konidion, spore, <f>opa, phora, carry- 
ing, a special branch or stalk on which spores are borne. 

Coniferae: L. conus, cone, fero, bear. 

Conjugation: L. con, with, jugum, yoke, the fusion of two sexual 
bodies. 

Cork: a peculiar parenchyma-like tissue in which the cellulose 
is changed to suberin. 

Corolla: L. corona, crown, the inner row of sterile sporophylls, 
or petals, of the flower, 

Coronariales : L, corona, crown. 

Crassicarpus : L. crassus, thick, carpus, fruit. 

Cucurbita: L. cucurbita, gourd, a genus of Cucurbitaceae. 

Cuspidata: L. cuspidatus, sharp. 

Cuticle: L. skin, the outer wall of the epidermal cells, usually 
thickened in xerophytes. 

Cyperaceae: Gr. icvTreipos, Isypeirus, marsh plant. 

Cystiphoreae: Gr.Kwrrt?, kystis, sack, <^opa, phora, carry mg. 

Cystocarp: Gr. kvo-ti?, kystis, sack, fcapxos, karpos, fruit, the 
fruit of the red seaweeds, arising from fertilization of the 
carpogone. 

Cytoplasm: Gr. Krro?, kytos, jar, TrXacr/xa, plasma, form, the pro- 
toplasm of the celL 



GLOSSARY 107 

Dehydration: the removal of water from specimens. 

Deltoides: L. deltoldes, delta-like or triangular. 

Derived: proceeding from a contiguous vegetation. 

Desmidium: Gr. S^tr/uStor, desmidion, little band. 

Diaphragm: Gr. 8ta, dia, across, <^pay/xa, phragma, fence, the 
thin layer of cells stretching across the intercellular spaces 
of aquatic plants. 

Dicotyledones: Gr. St^ di, double, KOTv\-q8<Lv, kotyledon, vessel. 

Discomycetales: Gr. Sto-Kos, diskos, disk, round plate, fi.vKr]<:, 
mykes, mushroom. 

Disk: the fruiting surface or hymenium of an apothecium; the 
central portion of a composite flower, the nead, covered with 
tubular florets. 

Distribution: the position and occurrence of a plant or forma- 
tion in the vegetative covering. 

District: the division of the vegetative covering next below the 
region in rank. 

Dwarf male: a small, club-shaped body, of Oedogoniaceae, con- 
sisting of a stalk cell, and one or two antheridial cells. 

-eae: L. eus, related to. 

Ecology: Gr. 6lko<s, oikos, house, Xoyo?, logos, science, the 
branch of botany which treats of the relation of plant and 
habitat. 

Ectocarpus: Gr. €kto?, ektos, outside, /capTro?, karpos, fruit. 

Elater: Gr. iXarrjp, elater, charioteer, spiral thread or mem- 
branous band used in dispersing the spores in liverworts 
and horsetails. 

Embryo sac: the full-grown macrospore of the macrosporangium 
of Anthophytes. 

Endemic: Gr. cv, en, in, Siy/xios, demios, belonging to the people, 
native. 

Endosperm: Gr. cvSog, endos, within, cnripfm^ sperma, seed, the 
nutritious dependent prothahium of the macrospore of 
of Anthophytes. 

Ephemeral : Gr. ctti, epi, upon, -^/xepa, hemera, day, blooming for 
a single day. 

Epidermal system: the outer layer or epidermis with all its 
modifications, hairs, stomata, etc. 



108 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Epidermis: Gr. eiri, epi, upon, hipfm, derma, skin, the outer layer 

of cells of tissue-forming plants, ferns and flowering plants. 
Equisetum: L. equus, horse, seta, bristle. 
Erysiphe: Gr. Ipva-Cfi-q, erysibe, rust. 
Erythronium: Gr. €pv6p6<s, erythros, red. 
Esculentum: L. esculentus, esculent, edible. 
Estival: L. aestivalis, pertaining to summer 
Euphorbia: Gr. €v<j>6p/3i.ov, euphorbion, spurge, a genus of 

Euphorbiaceae. 
Excentric: out of the center. 
Exuding: L. exudare, to sweat out. Giving out liquid matter 

through pores or incisions. 
Facies: L. facies, face, aspect, a controlling species of a forma- 
tion. 
False branch: an apparent branch arising in Scytonemataceae 

and Rivulariaceae by the out-growth or attachment of 

hormogones. 
Family: a group of plants next below an order in rank, as 

Chroococcaceae. 
Fastigiatus: L, fastiglatus, clustered. 

Fertile: bearing reproductive or propagative organs or bodies. 
Fibrous tissue: tissue in which the cells are greatly elongated 

and tapering. 
Fibro-vascular bundles: the bundles of fibers and ducts which 

compose the skeleton system of plants. 
Fibrovascular system: all the bundles which form the skeletal or 

supportive tissues of the plant. 
Filament: L. filamentum, a thread or chain of cells. 
Filicales: L. filix, fern. 
Filicineae: L. filix, fern. 
Fission: the process of cell increase by a gradual pinching In 

two of the cell. 
Flexilis: L. flexilis, fiexible, yielding. 
Floret: diminutive of L. flos, floris, flower, one of the small 

flowers of a head, in the Composites. 
Florideae: L. floridus, bright. 
Flower: the reproductive axis and its parts among the 

Anthophytes. 
Flower cluster: the group of flowers upon a stem or receptacle. 



GLOSSARY 109 

Formation: a definite area of the vegetative covering, composed 
of plants adapted to the same conditions. 

Fraxinus: L. fraxinus, an ash-tree. 

Frequence: the sum of the stations or localities in which a for- 
mation or a species occurs. 

Fruit: the mature macrosporophyll with its seeds, often includ- 
ing the receptacle or some of the sterile sporophylls. 

Fruit dot: a cluster of spores or sporangia, a sorus. 

Fucus: L. seaweed. 

Funaria: L. fune, rope. 

Function: L. fungor, do, the work or working of an organ or 
part. 

Fundamental system: the collection of tissues, chiefly paren- 
chyma, which makes up the piant with the exception of the 
bundles and the epidermis. 

Fungus: L. fungus, mushroom, the term applied to any chloro- 
phyll-less piant of the first three branches. 

Galium: Gr. dim. of ydXa, gala, milk. 

Gametophyte: Gr. yafierrj^, gametes, spouse, ^urov, phyton, plant, 
the structure which bears the archegones and antherids; the 
prothallium or sexual generation. 

Gasteromycetales : Gr. yaa-rrjp, gaster, abdomen, fivKr)<i^ mykes, 
mushroom. 

Geitonogamy: Gr. yctrwv, geiton, neighbor, ya/xos, gamos, mar- 
riage, the fertilization of one fiower by the pollen of another 
flower of the same plant. 

Gemmation: L. gemmatus, jewelled. 

Generation: that which is generated or produced, such as the 
gametophyte or sporophyte. 

Genus: a group of closely related species, as Gloeocapsa. 

Geotropism: Gr. yatd, gaia, the earth, T/aeVctv, trepein, to turn, a 
tendency to grow or incline toward the earth. 

Germinate: L. germano, sprout, begin to grow, sprout. 

Gesneriana: L. gesnerianus, of Gesner. 

Gill: one of the flat, spore-bearing plates on the underside of 
the cap of mushrooms. 

Globose: L. globosus, round, like a ball. 

Gloeocapsa: Gr. yXotos, gloios, glue, Kaij/a, kapsa, chest. 



110 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Gloeotrichia: Gr. yXoto?, gloios, glue, Opii, thrix, hair. 

Glumales: L. gluma, husk. 

Gracile: L. gracilis, graceful. 

Graminis: L. gramen, grass. 

Gymnospermae: Gr. yvjxvos, gymnos, naked, <nr(pixa, sperma, 

seed. 
Gynoecium: Gr. ywij, gyne, woman, oIklov, oikion, house, the 

macrosporophyll or pistil of a flower. 
Habitat group: a collection of species growing in similar physical 

conditions and exhibiting similar adaptations. 
Haematoxylin : Gr. atfm, haima, -arcs, atos, blood, ^vAov, xylon, 

wood, a blue stain obtained from the logwood (Haematoxy- 

lon campechianum). 
Hair: a pushing-out of the epidermis into a hair-like cell, or 

many-celled structure. 
Half-cell: one of cne symmetrical halves of a desmid cell. 
Hamata: L. hamatus, hooked. 
Hapaxanthous : Gr. aTro^, hapax, once, av6os, anthos, flower, 

flowering but once, annual. 
Head: a flower cluster in which the flowers are sessile on a 

short axis, as in the clover, or upon the receptacle, as in the 

dandelion. 
Hemeranthous: Gr. "^fi^pa, hemera, day, avOo?, anthos, flower, 

opening during the daytime only. 
Hepaticae: Gr. rprap, hepar, liver, through the L. hepaticus. 
Heterocyst: Gr. €T€po<Sy neteros, different, Kwrrts, kystis, cell, a 

clear yellow cell of Protophytes, of doubtful function. 
Heterogamete : Gr. erepos, heteros, different, ya/x-er^ys, gametes, 

spouse, either of the two dissimilar reproductive cells, 

oosphere and antherozoid. 
Hibiscus: Gr. t/^t'o-Ko?, hibiskos, mallow, a genus of the 

Malvaceae. 
Hilum: L. hilum, trifle, the central part of a starch grain. 
Hirsutissima: L. hirsutissimus, very hairy. 
Hirtum: L. hirtus, shaggy. 
Histology: Gr. to-rds, histos, web, Xdyos, logos, word, the science 

of tissues. 



GLOSSARY 111 

Homogeneous: Gr. ofx6<s, homos, same, ycVo?, genos, kind, simi- 
lar throughout, uniform, 
Hormogone: Gr. opyu-os, hormos, chain, yovLov, gonion, offspring, 

a portion of the filament of a blue-green slime which breaks 

away and forms a new filament. 
Hyacinthus: Gr. YaKLvOo<:, Hyacinthus, a genus of Liliaceae. 
Hydrophyte: Gr. vSiop, hydor, water, ^vroi/, phyton, plant, a 

plant growing in a habitat with a large amount of available 

soil water. 
Hygrometrica: Gr. vypo?, hygros, wet, /xerptAcos, metrikos, of 

measure, absorbing moisture. 
Hylophyte: Gr. vXrj, hyle, forest, ^vtov, phyton, plant, a 

wood-loving plant. 
Hymenium: Gr. ^fxtjv, hymen, membrane, the flat fruiting sur- 
face of an apothecium, consisting of asci and paraphyses. 
Hymenomycetales: Gr. vft^v, hymen, membrane, fivKrj<s, mykes, 

mushroom. 
Hyphae: Gr. v<f>Tj, hyphe, web, the threads of a fungus. 
Hysterium: Gr. vcrrcpa, hystera, cleft. 
Hysterographium : Gr. vcrrepa, hystera, cleft, ypacfitj, graphe, 

writing. 
Impatiens: L. L. impatiens, impatient, a genus of Geraniaceae. 
Inferales: L. inferus, below. 

Infiltration: the process of penetration by liquids. 
Intercellular space: a small space or canal between the cells in 

soft tissue. 
Isodiametric: Gr. tcros, isos, equal, Sta^erpos, diametros, diameter, 

of equal diameter. 
Isogamete: Gr. to-os, isos, like, yafi€Trj<;, gametes, spouse, one of 

two similar reproductive cells, a microzoogonidium. 
Karyokinesis: Gr. Kapvov, karyon, nut, Ktn^crts, kinesis, moving, 

the rearrangement of the nuclear matter as a result of 

which two new nuclei are formed; nuclear division. 
Lacustris: L. lacustris, pertaining to a lake. 
Lamella: L. lamella, plate, one of the flat plates or gills on the 

under surface of the mushroom cap. 
Lamellose: L. lamella, plate or layer, arranged in layers. 



112 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Lanceolata: L. lanceolatus, lance-shaped. 

Latifolia: L. latus, wide, folium, leaf, broad-leaved. 

Latticed: with open spaces, as in a lattice. 

Layer: a group or stratum of plants of the same general height 

in a formation. 
Leaf: a fiat expanded organ borne laterally on the stem, a sterile 

sporophyll. 
Lenticel: L. lenticula, lentil, the growth of cork tissue, stopping 

an old stoma. 
Leucocrinum: Gr. XevKos, leukos, white, Kptvov, krinon, lily. 
Leucoplast: Gr. A-ev/co^^ leukos, white, TrAao-ros, plastos, formed, 

a colorless body turning sugar into starch and developing 

chlorophyll in the light. 
Lichen: Gr, kcLxrjv, leichen, tree-moss, lichen, the term applied 

to cup fungi, black fungi, and thelephores parasitic upon 

algae. 
Lignin: L. lignum, wood, the substance peculiar to woody and 

stony cell walls. 
Liliaceae: L. lilium, lily. 

Lithospermum : Gr. Xido^, lithos, stone, a-Trcptjua, sperma, seed. 
Lobata: L. lobatus, lobed. 

Lycoperdaceae : Gr. Xvko?, lykos, wolf, WpW, perdon, puff. 
Lycopersicum : u-r. Avkos, lykos, wolf, TrepcrLKov persikon, (Per- 
sian) peach, a genus of Solanaceae. 
Lycopodium: Gr. Avkos, lykos, wolf, 7roStov,podion, little foot. 
Macerate: L. macero, soften, to cause to separate, as the cells 

of a tissue. 
Macrosporangium: Gr. /xaxpos, makros, large, crvopa, spora, spore, 

ayytW, angion, little vessel, a globose structure developed 

from the macrosporophyll and producing macrospores, an 

ovule. 
Macrospore: Gr. /xaxpo?, large, a-rropa, spora, spore, the large 

spore of ferns and flowering plants, producing the female 

prothallium upon germination. 
Macrosporophyll: Gr. /laKpos makros, large, cTropa, spora. spore. 

4>{Wov, phyllon, leaf, the leaf upon which macrospores or 

macrosporangia are borne, a carpel. 



GLOSSARY 113 

Majus: L. major, greater. 

Marchantia: from the botanist Marchand. 

Marginatus: L. marglnatus, margined. 

Mays: Spanish maiz, Indian com. 

Medullary: L. medulla, marrow, pertaining to the pith, hence 
applied to the rays which extend from the pith through the 
wood. 

Meristem: Gr. fxepiarrrj^t merlstes, divider, primary tissue arising 
from an apical cell or group of cells, from which all other 
tissues are derived. 

Mesophyll: Gr. fteo-o?, mesos, middle, ^vAAov, phyllon, leaf, the 
parenchyma of the leaf, including sponge and palisade tissue. 

Mesophyte: Gr. ii€(T6<i, mesos, middle, tfivrov, phyton, plant, a 
plant growing in a habitat characterised by medium quantity 
of available soil water. 

Metabolism: Gr. /iCTaySoA.17 , metabole, to change, the process by 
which living cells take up and convert into their own sub- 
stance, the nutritive material brought them by the circula- 
tion, or by which they transform their protoplasm into 
simpler substances. 

Methyl green : Gr. /^cra, meta, belonging to, vAiy, hyle, wood, a 
green stain belonging to the anilin series. 

Micrampelis: Gr. fuKp6<s, mikros, short, d/xTreXt?, ampelis, vine, 
a genus of Cucurbitaceae. 

Micrometer: Gr. fttKpo?, mikros, small, fierpov metron, measure, 
a small scale placed in the eye-piece for measuring micro- 
scopical objects. 

Microspora: Gr./u/cpos, mikros, small, cnropa, spora, spore. 

Microsporangium : Gr. fUKpos, mikros, small, (nropa, spora, spore, 
dyytov, angion, little vessel, a modification of part of the 
microsporophyll in which microspores or pollen grains are 
produced. 

Microspore: Gr. [UKpos, mikros, small, a-iropa, spora, spore, a 
small spore developed in a microsporangium or anther, and 
producing a male prothallium, a pollen grain. 



114 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Microsporophyll : Gr. /xik/oos, mikros, small, arropa, spora, spore, 

<f>vXXoVy phyllon, leaf, a leaf which bears microspores or 

microsporangia, a stamen. 
Microtome: Gr. /uKpos, mikros, small, rofiy, tome, a cutting, an 

instrument for cutting very thin sections. 
Migration: L. migratio, change of abode, the movement of a 

species or group of species into new stations. 
Milk tissue: a tissue traversed by ducts or tubes containing a 

milky substance. 
Milk tube: a duct or tube secreting a resin of a milky character. 
Monocotyledones: Gr. jxovos, monos, single, KorvXrjSiav , kotyle- 

don, vessel. 
Montanum: L. montanus, mountain. 
Motile: L. motilis, possessing movement. 
Mucedo: L. mucedo, mould. 

Mucilage canal: a tube in which mucilage is formed. 
Mucor: L. mucor, mould. 
Multilocular: L. multus, many, loculus, little place, consisting of 

many cells, many-celled. 
Muscineae: L. muscus, moss. 
Mushroom, strictly, an edible fungus of the Agaraicaceae; more 

generally, any species of this family. 
Mycelium: Gr. /mvk^s, mykes, fungus, the mass of vegetative fila- 
ments of a fungus. 
Navicula: L. dim. of navis, ship. 

Nematogeneae: Gr. v€/Aa,nema, thread, yeVw, geno, bear. 
Nitella: L. niteo, to shine. 
Nitida: L. nitidus, shining. 
Nodolusum: L. nodum, joint. 
Normal: typical or standard. 
Nose-piece: end-piece of a microscope carrying two or more 

objectives. 
Nostoc: derivation doubtful. 

Nothocalais: Gr. v60o<s, nothos, spurious, KaXat?, kalais, topaz. 
Nucleolus: L. nucleus, a deeply staining body surrounded by an 

areole, occurring singly, or several in the resting nucleus. 
Nucleus: L. nux, nut, the central organ of the cell, usually 

globose in shape. 



GLOSSARY 115 

Nyctanthous : Gr. vv^, nyx, night, av^05, anthos, flower, flowering 

at night or upon cloudy days. 
Objective: the lower set «f lenses of the microscope, which bring 

the light rays to a focus. 
Obliquus: L. obliquus, oblique. 

Obstructive: checking or preventing the migration of plants. 
Ocular: the upper set of lenses of the microscope, which magnify 

the image formed by the objective. 
Oedogonium: Gr. otSos, oidos, swelling, yow, gonu, joint, 
-oideae: L. oideus, resembling. 
Oogone: Gr. wov, oon, egg, yoviov, gonion, offspring, the female 

organ of the Phycophytes whicn contains the oosphere or egg. 
Oosphere: Gr. wov, oon, egg, (r^at)oa, sphaira, ball, the egg-cell of 

the female organ, oogone, carpogone or archegone. 
Oospore: Gr. wov, oon, egg, cnropa, spora, spore, the fertilized 

oosphene, a resting spore, the product of the fertilization 

of the oogone. 
Open bundle: a collateral bundle in which the xylem and phloem 

are separated by cambium, and are capable of growth. 
Order: a group of plants next below a class in rank, as 

Cystiphorae. 
Orient: L. oriens, rising, hence east, to arrange a parafl[in block 

so that it will be cut in the desired direction. 
Orientalis: L. orientalis, pertaining to the East. 
Oscillatoria: L. oscillare, oscillate. 
Osmosis: Gr. (uo-ynos, osmos, an impulse, the mixing of two fluids 

by diffusion through an intervening porous membrane. 
Ovule: L.L. ovulum, egg, the term applied to the macrosporan- 

gium of Anthophyta. 
Palisade tissue: the soft tissue of the leaf composed of oblong, 

parallel cells. 
Papilionaceae : L. papilio, butterfly. 
Pappus: Gr. TraTTTros, pappos, down (?), the bristles, hairs or 

scales to which the calyx is reduced in Compositae. 
Paraphysis: Gr. Trapa, para, alongside, <f>vara, physa, bellows, one 

of the sterile threads found with the asci or sporangia. 
Parasite: Gr. Trapd, para, alongside, trtro?, sitos, wheat, food, a 

plani dependent upon another plant for its food. 



116 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Parencliyma: Gr. Trapd, para, beside, Iv, in, xyfios, chymos, juice, 

soft tissue making up the assimilative part of the plant. 
Parmelia: Gr. Trap/xt], parme, small shield. 
Patch: an irregular or indefinite group of plants belonging to 

one or more species. 
Peculiar: found only m a certain region or district. 
Pendula: L. pendulus, hanging. 
Pepo: L. pepo, melon. 
Perisporium: Gr. Trept, peri, around, o-Troptov, sporion, little 

spore. 
Perithecium: Gr, Trept, peri, around, Otjkt] theke, box, the spore 

fruit of the Pyrenomycetes. 
Peronospora: Gr. Trepovrj perone, point, cnropa., spora, spore. 
Petal: Gr. TreraAov, petalon, leaf, one of the inner row of sterile 

sporophylls, a part of the corolla. 
Petiole: L. petiolus, the stalK of a leaf. 
Peziza: L. pezica, sort of mushroom. 

Phaeophyceae : Gr. <^atos, phaios, dark, (J3vko^, phykos, seaweed. 
Phaeosporeae: Gr. cf>aL6<s, pnaios, dark, a-iropa, spora, spore. 
Phaseolus: L. phaselus, kidney bean, a genus of Leguminosae. 
Phellogen: Gr. ^eAAos, phellos, cork, yevew, geneo, bear, the 

meristematic tissue which produces cork. 
Phloem: Gr. <^Xotos, phloios, bark, the sieve or bast portion of 

the fibrovascular bundle. 
Photo-synthesis: Gr. <jio)Tos, photos, light, avvOecn^, sunthesis, to 

place or put together, the process of producing starch or 

sugar in the green plant, in the presence of light, by the 

absorption of carbon dioxide or water with the consequent 

evolution of oxygen. 
Phycocyanin: Gr. <}>vko<s, phykos, seaweed, Kvavo<;, kyanos, dark 

blue, the blue-green pigment of the Protophytes. 
Phycophyta: Gr. cjivKos, phykos, seaweed, <f>vT6v, phyton, plant. 
Physcia: Gr. ^vVk?;, physke, pudding. 
Physcomitrium: Gr. <f>vaK7], physke, sausage, /urpLov, mitrion, 

little cap. 
Phytogeography: Gr. cf)VT6v, phyton, plant, yij, ge, earth, ypa<f)r}, 

graphe, writing, the study of the vegetative covering of the 

earth. 



GLOSSARY 117 

Pinus: L. pinus, pine, a genus of Pinaceae. 

Pirus: L. pirus, pear-tree, a genus of Rosaceae. 

Pistil: L. pistillum, pounding instrument, the macrosporophyll 
or female reproductive organ of the Anthophyte. 

Pistillate: bearing macrosporophylls or pistils alone: as a 
pistillate fiower. 

Pisum: Gr. ttlcto^, pisos, garden pea, a genus of Leguminosae. 

Placental scale: a large outgrowth of the macrosporangium of 
the pines, constituting the larger bulk of the cone. 

Plastid : Gr. TrXaaro?, plastos, formed, a definite bit of protoplasm 
capable of producing a pigment, and of increase by fission. 

Pleiocyclic: Gr. irXdos, pleios, full, kvkAos , kyklos, circle, fiower- 
ing year after year, perennial. 

Pleurococcus : Gr. vXevpos, pleuros, side, kokk6<5, kokkos, berry. 

Poa: Gr. ttoo, poa, grass. 

Pod: a dry splitting fruit, a macrosporophyll containing several 
seeds or sporangia and splitting when dry. 

Polemonium: Gr. ttoXc/xo?, polemos, battle. 

Pollen: L. pollen, mill-dust, the microspores of fiowering plants. 

Polyanthous: Gr. ttoXvs, polys, many, avOos, anthos, flower, bear- 
ing many flowers. 

Polymorpha: Gr. ttoXv?, polys, many, /xop({>y, morphe, form. 

Polypodium: Gr. ttoAvs, polys, many, ttoSiW, podion, little foot. 

Polysiphonia: Gr. ttoXus, polys, many, crt'<jf)wv, siphon, tube. 

Polyspermous: Gr. ttoAvs, polys, many, (nrepfxa, sperma, seed, 
bearing many-seeded fruits. 

Poophyte : Gr. Troa, poa, grass, (jivrov, phyton, plant, a plant 
growing in grassland. 

Populus: L. populus, poplar, a genus of Salicaceae. 

Pratensis: L. pratensis, of a meadow. 

Prevernal: L. prae, before, vernalis, spring, appearing in earli- 
est spring. 

Primitive: L. primitivus, early, first, earliest, simplest. 

Principal species: those species of a formation next to facies in 
abundance and importance. 

Propagation; asexual increase of cells, as by fission, budding, 
nuclear division, etc. 



118 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Prothallium: Gr. irpo, pro, before, OaWiov^ thallion, a young 

shoot, the plant which bears antherids and archegones, botn 

in Anthophytes and Pteridophytes. 
Protococcus: Gr. Trpwros, protos, first, kokko^, kokkos, berry. 
Protonema: Gr. TrpCjTos, protos, first, vifxa, nema, thread, the 

first filamentous stage of the moss plant. 
Protophyta: Gr. 7rpioTo<s, protos, first, <j>vt6v, phyton, plant. 
Protoplasm: Gr. 7rpS}To<s, protos, first, TrXdcrpn, plasma, form, the 

semi-fluid substance which makes up the oasis of active 

cells. 
Province: one of the main divisions of the vegetative covering. 
Prunus: L. prunus, plum tree. 

Pteridophyta: Gr. Trrepis, pteris, fern, <f>vT6v, phyton, plant. 
Pteris: Gr. TTTepis^ pteris, fern. 
Puccinia: from an Italian botanist, Puccini. 
Puff-ball: the powdery spore-fruit of most Gastromycetes. 
Pulsatilla: L. pulsatus, shaken, blown about. 
Pyrenoid: Gr. ttv/jiJv, pyren, stone, €1805, eidos, form, a bit of 

protoplasm usually associated with the chloroplast in algae, 

used for storing starch. 
Pyrenomycetales: Gr. Trvprjv, pyren, stone, i^vk-tj^, mykes, mush- 
room. 
Radial: grouped like the radii of a circle. 
Ranales: L. rana, frog. 
Ranunculus: L. ranunculus, little frog. 
Ray: the outer radiate portion of a composite, consisting of 

strap-shaped florets. 
Ray floret: the strap-shaped flower of the margin of a head, as 

in the sunflower. 
Receptacle: L. receptaculum, receptacle, the portion of the axis 

bearing the sporophylls. 
Rigidity: L. rigiditas, stiffness, the quality of being rigid, of 

resisting change of form. 
Region: a division of the province. 
Reproduction: the fusion of two sexual cells out 01 which arises 

the new plant. 
Resin canal: a tuoe in which resin is found. 



GLOSSARY 119 

Resting spore: a spore protected by a thick wall designed to 
carry a plant through unfavorable conditions. 

Reticulate: L. reticulum, net, resembling a network, netted. 

Rhizoid: Gr. pt'^a, rniza, root, ctSos, eidos, form, one of the 
thread-like hairs which serve the purpose of roots among 
the Bryophytes and Jr'teridophytes. 

Rhodomelaceae: Gr. poSov, rhodon, rose, fjirjXov, melon, apple. 

Khodophyoeae: Gr. poSoj/, rhodon, rose, cjJ) Jko5, phykos, seaweed. 

xvibes: Arabic, ribes, gooseberry. 

Rivularia: L. rivulus, rill. 

Rosa: L.. rosa, rose. 

Rubiales: L. rubia, madder. 

Ruderal: L. ruderalis, of rubbish, pertaining to weeds. 

Rupestris: L. rupestris, of a shore or bank. 

Rust: the common name of the species of Uredineae. 

Saccharomyces : Gr. aaKxo-pov, sakcharon, sugar, fxvKr]^, mykes, 
mushroom. 

Safranin: Fr. safran, fr. Ar. zafaran, yellow, a red stain belong- 
ing to the coal-tar colors. 

Sagittaria: L. Sagittarius, archer, a genus of Alismaceae. 

Salicis: L. salix, salicis, willow. 

Sambucus: Gr. crafx(3vKr], sambyke, a musical instrument, a genus 
of Caprifoliaceae. 

Saprophyte: Gr. o-aTrpos, sapros, putrid, (fivrov^ phyton, plant, a 
plant growing upon organic matter, but not on living 
organisms. 

Sativum: L. sativus, sown, cultivated. 

Saxif ragaceae : L. saxum, rock, frango, break. 

Scale: a small, leaf-like appendage found on buds, stems, etc. 

Scenedesmus: Gr. a-K-qviq, Skene, tent, 8ecr/xos, desmos, band. 

Schizophyceae: Gr. (rxt'S^w, skidzo, split, c^vkos, phykos, seaweed. 

Scirpus: L. scirpus, rush, a genus of Cyperaceae, 

Sclerenchyma: Gr. a-KXrjpo^, skleros, hard, tv, en, in, x^f^^'^i 
chymos, juice, stony tissue, in which the cell wall is greatly 
thickened and hardened by lignin; a tissue in which the 
walls are lignified. 

Scutellata: L. scutellatus, disk-shaped. 

Scytonema: Gr. (tkvtos, skytos, leather, ve/xa, nema, thread. 



120 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Secondary species: one of the less important species of a forma- 
tion. 
Secretory passage: a canal or tube in which, various gums, resins, 

etc., are stored. 
Segment : L. seco, cut, section, joint. 
Selaginella: L. dim. of selago, name of a plant. 
Senecio: L. senex, an old man. 
Sepal: L. separo, separate, one of the outer row of sterile 

sporophylls: a part of the calyx. 
Sepultaria: L. sepultum, buried. 
Serotinal: L. serus, late, autumnal. 
Sheath: the mucilaginous covering of the cell or filament of 

many Protophytes. 
Shield: the sporophyll of the horse-tails. 
Sieve plate: one of the perforated partitions of the sieve tubes, 

through which the protoplasm is connected. 
Sieve tissue: a component tissue of the fibrovascular bundles, 

consisting of sieve tubes and companion cells. 
Sieve tube: a row of elongated cells, separated by perforated end 

partitions or sieve plates. 
Siphoneae: Gr. accjjwv, siphon, tube. 
Soft tissue: tissue composed of thin-walled, cellulose cells, 

charged with the assimilative function. 
Solanum: L. L. soianum, nightshade, a genus of Solanaceae. 
Sorus: Gr. cropos, soros, vessel, a sac containing spores; or a 

definite portion of tissue where spores or sporangia are 

found. 
Species: L. species, aspect, a group of individuals differing from 

each other only in insignificant characters. 
Spherical: Gr. o-^atpa, spnaira, ball, round, as a ball. 
Spikelet: the flower cluster of the sedges and grasses, a small 

spike. 
Spirillum: Gr. a-ircLpvWiov, speiryllion, little spiral. 
Spirogyra: Gr.o-TreTpa, speira, spiral, yvpos, gyros, ring. 
Splendens: L. splendens, showy. 
Sponge tissue: the loose, soft tissue of the leaf. 
Sporangium: Gr. a-vopa, spora, spore, dyytov, angion, little vessel. 
Spore: Gr. (nropa, spora, seed, a propagative or reproductive body 

of the cryptogams. 



GLOSSARY 121 

Spore fruit: the fruiting body of the Carpophyta, perithecium, 

apothecium, cystocarp, or peridium. 
Spore sac: a membranous sack containing spores, an ascus. 
Sporophyll: Gr. a-Tropa, spora, spore, <f>vX\ov, phyllon, leaf, a 

hat expansion of tissue, with or without organs of multiplica- 
tions. 
Sporophyte: Gr. airopa spora, spore, <f>vT6v, phyton, plant: the 

plant produced by the fertilization of the archegone, in the 

mosses the capsule, in the lerns the frond, and in the 

Anthophytes, the whole visible plant. 
Stamen: L. stamen, thread, the microsporophyll, the organ which 

bears the microspores or pollen. 
Staminate: bearing microsporophylls or stamens alone, as a 

staminate flower. 
Stellate: L. stellatus, starry, star-shaped. 
Sterile: lacking both reproductive and propagative bodies. 
Stipple: D. stip, dot, draw or shade by means of dots. 
Stomata: pi. of stoma. 
Stoma, pi. stomata: Gr. a-To/xa, stoma, mouth, the opening 

through the epidermis provided with guard cells. 
Stone-cell: an isodiametric cell having a thick lignified wall. 
Stone fibre; an elongated, thickened cell, with lignified wall. 
Stonewort: the common name for the Characeae, derived from 

the lime incrustations of the stem and leaves. 
Subclass: the name of the group next below the class in rauK. 
Suberin: L. suber, the cork-oak, the substance peculiar to cork. 
Suborder: the name of the group next below the order in rank. 
Subtilis: L. subtilis, fine, delicate. 
Summer spore: a conidium or uredospore of the rusts, capable of 

immediate germination. 
Symmetry: Gr. <rvv, syn, with, /u-erpov, metron, measure, harmony 

of arrangement. 
Syriaca: L. syriacus, of Syria. 
Taraxaxjum: Gr. rapa^tg^ taraxis, disorder. 
Tenuis: L. tenuis, chin. 
Tetraspore: Gr. rkrpa, tetra, four, (nropa, spora, spore, the 

asexual spore of the red seaweeds, usually produced in fours. 



122 MANUAL OF BOTANY 

Thalamiflorales : Gr. OaKa/xos, thalamos, chamber, L. flos, flower. 
Thallus. Gr. 6d\os, thalos, shoot, the plant body or plant mass. 
Thermostat: Gv.Oepfxt], tnerme, heat, icrrrjfjn, histemi, stand, an 

instrument to regulate automailt'ally the flame of a burner. 
Thick-angled tissue: tissue composed of elongated cells, thick- 
ened at the angles. 
Tissue: a deflnite group of similar cells with a particular 

function. 
Trachea: L. L. trachia, a vessel. 
Tracheary: pertaining to a trachea. 
Tracheids: L. L. trachea, vessel, an elongated fibre-like cell with 

closed ends and usually bordered pits or spiral markings. 
Trama: L. trama, woof, the central tissue, consisting of small 

filaments, of the gills of mushrooms. 
Transverse: at right angles to the long diameter. 
Triticum: L. triticum, wheat, a genus of Graminaceae. 
Tropaeolum: Gr. rpoTraiov, tropaion, trophy, a genus of 

Geraniaceae. 
Tuber: Latin name for the truffle. 
Tuberosum: L. tuberosus, bearing a tuber. 
Tulipa: Fr. tulipe from Per. dulband, turban. 
Turgidity: L. turgidus, swollen, a condition of being swollen or 

unnaturally distended. 
Type: the form or character of an organism, the organism itself 

when it represents a larger group. 
Typical: representative, characteristic. 
Ulothrix: Gr. ovXos, oulos, fine, <fipt$, thrix, hair. 
Uncinula: L. little hook. 
Undula: L. dim. of unda, wave. 

Unilocular: L. unus, one, loculus, little place, one-celled. 
Uredo: L. uredo, a blasting. 
Ustilago: L. ustus, burnt. 

Vacuole: L. vacuum, space, a bubble of water in the protoplasm. 
Vaucheria: from Vaucher a French botanist. 
Vegetation: the plant covering of the globe. 
Vegetation form: a structural type, considered chiefly with 

respect to duration. 
Vegetative body: the part of the plant concerned in the process 

of nutrition. 



GLOSSARY 123 

Vegetative cell: a cell which carries on any physiological process 

except that of reproduction. 
Vegetative covering: the sum of plant formations. 
Vernal: L. vernalis, spring. 
Vessel: a long tube composed of a row of cells in which the end 

walls have dissolved. 
Viridis: L. viridis, green. 
Vulgaris: L. vulgaris, common. 

Whorl: three or more leaves in a circle at the same level. 
"Winter spore: the resting spore or teleutospore of the rusts, 

designed to carry the plant through the winter. 
Wood fibre: a short, rather thin-walled, lignified fibre, making 

up the greater part of woody tissue. 
Xenogamy: Gr. ^evos, xenos, stranger, ya/xos, gamos, marriage, 

fertilization between the flowers of two different individuals, 

stranger cross-fertilization. 
Xerophyte: Gr. ^epos, xeros, dry, <f>vT6v, phyton, plant, a plant 

growing in a habitat where there is little available soil water. 
Xylem: Gr. ^vXov, zylon, wood, the wood or tracheary portion of 

the fibrovascular bundle. 
Zea: Gr. ^eta, zeia, grain, a genus of Graminaceae. 
Zebrina: African zebra, striped. 
Zone: Gr. t,iovr], zone, belt, girdle, a strip or belt-like area of 

vegetation. 
Zoogonid: Gr. ^wov, zoon, animal, yovtSiov, gonidion, young, a 

motile spore provided with cilia, found in Phycophytes. 
Zoosporangium: Gr. ^aiov, zoon, animal, cnropa, spora, spore, 

dyytov, angion, vessel, a cell or modified branch in which 

zoospores or zoongonidia are formed. 
Zoospore: Gr. ^wov, zoon, animal, cnropa spora, spore, a motile 

propagative or reproductive body, microspore and macro- 
spore. 
Zygnema: Gr. ^vyov, zygon, yoke, vcyua, nema, thread. 
Zygomorphic: Gr. ^vyov, zygon, yoke, /Jiop(f)i], morphe, form, 

bilaterally symmetrical, as the flower of a mint. 
Zygote: Gr. ^vycuros zygotos, yoked, the resting spore formed 

by two isogametes, as in Spirogyra and Ascophora. 



SEP 25 1900 



